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MANUAL 


OP 


CATTLE-FEEDING 


A  TREATISE  ON 


THE  LAWS  OF  ANIMAL  NUTRITION  AND  THE  CHEMISTRY  OF 

FEEDING-STUFFS  IN   THEIR  APPLICATION  TO 

THE  FEEDING  OF  FARM-ANIMALS. 


With  Illustrations  and  an  Appendix  of  Useful  Tables. 

By  henry  p.  ARMSBY,  Ph.D., 

DIBBCTOR   or   THB    PENNSYLVANIA    STATE    COLLEGE   AQBICULTUBAIi 
EXPERIMENT    STATION. 

FIFTH    EDITION. 


THIRD     THOUSAND. 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS 

LONDON 

CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Ltd. 

1903 


Copyright, 
JOHN   WILEY    &    SONS. 


PRESS  OF 

BRAUNWORTH  &  CO, 

BOOKBINDERS  AND   PRINTERS 

BROOKLYN,   N.  Y. 


PEEFAOE 


Investigatioi^  into  the  laws  wliicli  form  the  basis  of  the  ra- 
tional feeding  of  Hve-stock  has  been  most  actively  and  indus- 
triously carried  on  of  late  years,  and  very  important  advances 
have  been  made,  especially  in  Germany,  where  this  branch  of 
apphed  science  has  been  most  attentively  and  persistently 
studied.  The  period  smce  the  year  1860,  in  particular,  has 
been  a  remarkably  fruitful  one  ;  within  this  period  the  theory 
of  feeding  has  been  placed  on  a  firm,  scientific  foundation,  and 
the  direction  of  its  futui-e  progress  has  been  marked  out ;  and 
while  very  much  still  remains  to  be  done,  the  results  ah-eady 
achieved  are  of  great  practical  importance. 

Unfortunately,  however,  these  results  are  largely  inaccessible 
to  the  majority  of  American  feeders,  and  those  of  them  which 
appear  from  time  to  time  in  agricultural  papers  and  other 
pubhcations  are  deprived  of  much  of  their  good  effect  by  their 
necessarily  fragmentary  character. 

It  is  the  object  of  this  work  to  present  these  results  in  a 
connected  aad  systematic  form  to  American  farmers  and  others 
interested  in  stock-feeding,  an  attempt  which,  so  far  as  the 
writer  is  aware,  has  not  before  been  made,  and  a  few  words  as 
to  the   scope  and  aims  of  such  a  book  wiU  therefore  be  in 


IV  PREFACE. 

In  the  writer's  view,  the  highest  usefiihiess  of  a  work  like  the 
joresent  does  not  consist  simply  in  giving  receipts  which  shall 
enable  the  farmer  to  feed  his  stock  more  economically,  or  to  pro- 
duce more  milk  or  more  or  better  beef,  but  in  so  elucidating 
our  knowledge  of  the  unchanging  natui'al  laws,  chemical  and 
physiological,  of  the  nutrition  of  animals,  that  the  attentive  stu- 
dent shall  be  able  to  adapt  his  practice  to  the  varying  conditions 
in  which  he  may  be  placed,  and,  more  important  still,  shall  be 
able  to  appropriate  inteUigently  the  results  of  new  investiga- 
tions and  follow  or  take  part  in  the  advances  of  the  science. 

Guided  by  this  idea,  the  author  has  not  been  content  simply 
to  state  results,  but  has  endeavored,  so  far  as  was  possible  in 
an  elementary  work,  to  indicate  the  processes  by  which  these 
results  have  been  reached  and  the  degree  of  certainty  which 
attaches  to  them,  as  well  as  to  point  out  the  directions  in  which 
Gur  knowledge  is  still  deficient.  Only  in  this  way  can  a  cor- 
rect idea  of  the  present  state  of  the  science  be  obtained  or  the 
learner  be  prepared  to  appreciate  and  utilize  further  progress. 

Iq  this  the  chiefly  practical  importance  of  the  subject  has 
not  been  forgotten. 

The  ultimate  object  of  this  branch  of  appHed  science  is,  of 
course,  to  enable  us  to  feed  better  and  more  economically ;  but 
the  only  sure  and  lasting  foundation  for  a  rational  practice  is  a 
knowledge  of  the  natural  laws  on  which  it  is  based,  and  with 
which  it  must  be  in  accordance  in  order  to  be  successful. 

This  method  of  treating  the  subject  naturally  makes  demands 
for  study  and  thought  on  the  part  of  the  reader  ;  the  results 
of  twenty  years  of  arduous  scientific  work  by  scores  of  investi- 
gators are  not  to  be  grasped  and  a^Dpropriated  without  labor. 
At  the  same  time  the  author  has  endeavored  to  reduce  this 


PREFACE.  V 

labor  as  much  as  is  possible  without  the  sacrifice  of  accuracy 
and  a  reasonable  degi'ee  of  fulness.  Above  all,  he  has  sought 
to  make  his  work  a  rehable  exponent  of  the  present  state  of 
knowledge  on  the  subject  of  cattle-feeding,  and  to  draw  a  sharp 
hue  between  proved  and  useful  facts,  and  merely  probable 
hypotheses  or  speculations. 

This  book  was  begun  as  a  translation  of  Wolff's  "  Land- 
imrthschaftliche  F litter ungslehre"  a  volume  of  some  two  hun- 
di-ed  pages.  It  was  soon  found,  however,  that  considerable 
additions  and  changes  were  required  to  suit  it  to  Ameri- 
can readers,  and  the  work  has  finally  assumed  its  present 
form.  Some  portions  of  it  are  still  fi*ee  translations  of  Wolff, 
but  much  more  of  it  has  been  either  added  or  entirely  re- 
written, and  a  number  of  illustrations  have  been  introduced, 
so  that  the  chai'acter  of  the  book  has  been  considerably 
altered.  One  of  the  most  marked  changes  is  the  substitution, 
in  the  Appendix,  of  Kiihn's  tables  of  the  composition  and 
digestibiUty  of  feeding-stuffs  for  those  of  Wolff*.  Although 
the  writer  does  not  accept  all  of  Kiihn's  opinions,  he  yet 
beheves  that  tables  arranged  on  the  plan  adopted  by  Kiihn 
ai-e,  on  the  whole,  preferable  to  those  containing  simply  aver- 
ages ;  and  in  view  of  the  changes  and  additions  made  else- 
where in  the  volume,  he  has  felt  justified  in  making  the  sub- 
stitution named,  though  aware  'that  Kiihn's  views,  on  some 
points,  are  warmly  opposed  by  Wolff. 

In  addition  to  the  "  Fiitterungslehi^e,"  the  author  is  espe- 
cially indebted  to  Wolft"s  larger  book,  "Die  Erndhrung  der 
landioir'thschaftlichen  Nutzthiere"  while  other  works  and  the 
current  literature  of  the  subject  have  been  freely  consulted. 

Sept.  1.  1880. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 


PAQB 

Introduction 1 


PART  I, 

THE  GENERAL  LAWS  OF  ANIMAL  NUTRITION. 

CHAPTER  I.— The  Composition  of  the  Animal  Body   .        .  5 

§  1.  Proportions  of  the  various  tissues    ....  5 

§  3.  Non-nitrogenous  matters     .         .         .         .         .         .  7 

§  3.  Nitrogenous  matters        ......  14 

§  4.  Inorganic  or  non -volatile  matters        ....  20 

CHAPTER  II.— Components  of  Fodders— Nutrients    .        .  25 

§  1.  Definitions 25 

§  2.  Nitrogenous  nutrients 26 

§  3.  Non-nitrogenous  nutrients 38 

§  4.  Inorganic  nutrients    .....         .        .  47 

§  5.  Fodder  Analysis 48 

CHAPTER  III.— Digestion  and  Resorption    ....  54 

§  1.  Digestion 54 

§  2.  Resorption 66 

CHAPTER  IV.— Circulation,  Respiration,  and  Excretion.  74 

§  1.  Circulation 74 

§2.  Respiration 80 

§  3.  Excretion 93 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  V. — Methods  of  Investigation     . 

55  1.  Determination  of  digestibility 

§  2.  Determination  of  nutritive  effect  of  a  ration 

CHAPTER  VI. — Formation  op  Flesh  .... 

§  1.  Introductory 

§  2.  Organized  and  circulatory  protein  . 

§  3.  Feeding  with  protein  alone         .... 

§  4.  Feeding  with  fat  or  carbhydrates  alone  . 

§  5.  Feeding  with  protein  and  fab      .... 

^  6.  Feeding  with  protein  and  carbhydrates  . 

§  7.  Nutritive  value  of  amides 

§  8.  Influence  of  quantity  of  food  .         .         .         .         , 

CHAPTER  VIL— The  Formation  of  Fat 

§  1.  Sources  of  fat  ...... 

§  2.  Feeding  with  fat  alone        ..... 

§  3.  Feeding  with  protein  alone      .... 

§  4.  Feeding  with  protein  and  fat      .... 

§  5.  Feeding  with  protein  and  carbhydrates  . 
§  6.   Influence  of  other  conditions  on  the  production 
fat 


CHAPTER  VIII.— The  Production  op  Work 

§  1.  Effects  of  muscular  exertion  on  excretion 

§  2.  The  source  of  muscular  power 

§  3.  Internal  work     ..... 


of 


PAGE 

104 
104 
109 

119 
119 
123 
128 
136 
137 
143 
158 
167 


169 

187 
188 
189 
191 

198 

202 
204 
213 


PART  11. 


THE  FEEDING-STUFFS. 

CHAPTER  I.— Digestibility 

§  1.  Digestibility  of  the  nutrients  of  coarse  fodder    . 

§  2.   Circumstances   affecting  the   digestibility  of  coarse 

fodder   

§  3.  Digestibility  of  the  concentrated  fodders  and  their 

influence  on  that  of  coarse  fodder   .... 

CHAPTER   11— The  Coarse  Fodders 

g  1.  Meadow  hay,  roweu,  and  pasture 


243 

245 

259 
273 

288 

288 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


PAGE 

§  2.  The  legumes 301 

Clover  and  clover  hay 302 

Lucerne 307 

Vetches 309 

Lupines        .         .         .         .        .        .         .        .310 

Other  legumes 311 

§  3.  Hungarian  grass 314 

§  4.  Maize  fodder  and  stover 315 

§  5.  Tops  of  root  crops 321 

§  6.  Straw  of  the  cereals 322 

§7.  Straw  of  the  legumes 326 

§  8.  Chaff,  pods,  and  maize  cob      .        .        .        .        .  327 

CHAPTER  III.— Concentrated  Fodders        .        .        .        .330 

§  1.  The  grains 330 

§  2.  Bye-products  of  the  grains 337 

§  3.  The  legumes 342 

§  4.  Oil  seeds  and  oil  cake 345 

§  5.  Animal  products      .......  349 

§  6.  Tubers  and  roots 355 


FABT  III. 
THE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS. 
CHAPTER  I.— Feeding  Standards 

CHAPTER  II. — Feeding  for  Maintenance 

§  1.  Oxen 

§2.  Sheep 


CHAPTER  III.— Fattening 

§  1.  Cattle . 
§2.  Sheep      . 
§  3.   Swine. 


CHAPTER  IV.— Feeding  Working  Animals 
§  1.   Introductory        .... 
§  2.  Working  oxen          .... 
§3.  Horses 


3G5 

374 
374 

383 

392 
392 
399 
404 

407 
407 
408 
409 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  v.— Production  of  Milk 414 

§  1.  The  milk-glands  and  their  functions        ,         .         .  414 

§  2.  The  quantity  of  milk 419 

§  3.  The  quality  of  the  milk 426 

§  4.  The  feeding  standard 431 

CHAPTER  VI.— Feeding  Growing  Animals        ...  436 

§  1.  General  laws  of  the  nutrition  of  young  animals  .        .  436 

§2.  Calves 442 

§  3,  Lambs 448 

§4.  Pigs         .        .        .        .  • 458 

§  5.  Inorganic  nutrients 462 

CHAPTER  VII.— The  Calculation  OF  Rations   ...  466 


APPENDIX, 

Table  I. — The  composition  of  feeding-stuffs      ....  478 

Table  II.— The  digestibility  of  feeding-stuffs        ...  487 

Table  III. — Feeding  standards  for  farm  animals       .        .         .  493 
Table  IV. — Proportions  of  the  various  parts  of  cattle,  sheep, 

and  hogs 494 


MANUAL  OP  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


INTEODUCTION. 

The  two  objects  of  agriculture  are  the  production  of 
plants  and  of  animals. 

We  must  seek  for  the  laws  governing  the  former  in  the 
chemistry  and  physics  of  the  air,  the  soil,  and  manures, 
and  in  the  phenomena  of  vegetable  gi'owth ;  while  a  scien- 
tific study  of  the  latter  involves  a  consideration  of  the  laws 
of  animal  nutrition  and  growth,  and  of  the  chemistry  of 
plants,  so  far  as  they  are  used  as  food. 

All  forms  of  life  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  vegeta- 
ble as  well  as  animal,  manifest  themselves  through  the 
breaking  up  of  more  complex  into  simpler  compounds, 
accompanied  by  a  liberation  of  energy. 

The  broad  distinction  between  vegetable  and  animal  life 
is,  that  plants  are  able  to  appropriate  the  force  which  ex- 
ists in  the  sun's  rays  and  use  it  to  build  up  these  complex 
compounds  out  of  very  simple,  so-called  inorganic  mate- 
rials, while  animals  lack  this  power,  and  are  obliged  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  compounds  already  formed  by 
plants. 

In  the  economy  of  nature,  the  office  of  the  plant  is  to 
store  up  energy  from  the  sun's  rays  in  certain  complex 
compounds,  setting  free  oxygen  in  the  process ;  while  the 
1 


2  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

animal  takes  these  compounds  and  utilizes  the  latent  en- 
ergy  which  thej  contain  for  his  vital  processes,  the  sub- 
stances themselves  uniting  again  with  the  oxygen  from 
which  they  were  separated  in  the  plant.  In  the  plant  the 
spring  is  wound  up — in  the  animal  it  unwinds  and  gives 
out  just  as  much  force  as  was  used  in  winding  it  up.  The 
two  processes  supplement  each  other ;  the  w^hole  is  a  com' 
plete  circle. 

A  living  animal,  then,  is  constantly  decomposing  and 
oxidizing  the  materials  of  its  own  body.  These  first  break 
up  in  the  cells  of  the  body,  independently  of  oxygen,  id 
accordance  with  the  laws  which  regulate  vital  phenomena 
and  give  out  part  of  the  latent  energy  which  they  con- 
tained.  Then  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  carried  by  the  blood 
to  every  part  of  the  body,  seizes  on  the  resulting  substances 
and  burns  them,  more  or  less  rapidly,  producing  a  large 
quantity  of  heat  to  replace  that  which  the  body  is  constantly 
losing  by  radiation  and  otherwise,  while  the  products  of 
this  burning  are  finally  excreted  from  the  body. 

The  body  is  thus  continually  suffering  a  loss  of  material. 
To  replace  this  loss,  as  well  as  to  supply  material  for  fur- 
ther growth,  is  the  office  of  the  food,  which  may,  frona 
this  point  of  view,  be  regarded  as  a  vehicle  for  the  intro- 
duction of  supplies  of  force  into  the  body. 

It  is  the  object  of  such  a  book  as  the  present  one  to 
show  how  much  and  what  kind  of  food  is  needed  to  sup- 
ply the  losses  arising  under  the  various  conditions  to  which 
farm  animals  are  subject.  In  order  to  do  this  intelligently, 
we  need  to  consider :  Jlrst,  the  nature  and  extent  of  the 
processes  going  on  in  the  body ;  second,  the  materials  avail- 
able as  food ;  and  third,  the  adaptation  of  these  materials 
to  the  various  purposes  of  feeding.  The  subject;,  then, 
naturally  divides  itself  into  three  parts : 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  3 

I.  The  General  Lav7S  of  Animal  Nutrition,  or  that 
portion  of  animal  physiology  which  treats  of  the  so-called 
"  vegetative  functions."  This  includes  the  composition  of 
the  animal  body,  the  processes  of  digestion,  circulation 
and  respiration,  and  the  production  of  flesh,  fat,  and  work. 

n.  The  Composition  and  Digestibility  of  Feeding- 
Stuffs. 

m.  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals — a  consideration 
of  the  kind  and  quantity  of  food  required  for  the  various 
purposes  for  which  such  animals  are  kept. 


^;^^c*i. 


PAET  L 
THE  GENERAL  LAWS  OF  ANIMAL  NUTRITION. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

THE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  BODY. 
§  1.  Proportions  of  the  Different  Organs  and  Parts. 

The  Fluids  circulating  in  the  blood  and  IjTiipli  vessels 
constitute  but  a  small  part,  at  most  not  more  than  7  to  9  per 
cent.,  of  the  live  weight,  and  in  old  or  very  fat  animals  the 
proportion  sinks  as  low  as  from  4  to  6  per  cent.  The 
digestive  fluids  and  other  secretions  and  fluid  excretions, 
although  they  are  produced  in  considerable  quantity  in  the 
course  of  twenty-four  hours,  can  hardly  be  taken  into 
account  as  constituents  of  the  body,  since  they  are  being 
produced  at  every  instant,  are  formed  more  or  less  directly 
from  the  blood,  and  are  partly  re-absorbed  into  it  or  pass 
out  of  the  body ;  while  the  blood,  on  the  other  hand,  al- 
though continually  giving  up  material  to  the  tissues  and 
receiving  new  from  the  food,  remains  very  constant  in  its 
quantity  and  chemical  properties. 

The  Solid  Tissues. — The  fresh  bones  constitute,  ac- 
cording to  the  kind,  age,  and  condition  of  the  animal,  6  to  12 
per  cent,  of  its  weight,  the  muscles  and  tendons  35  to  48  per 


6  MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

cent.,  and  the  fat,  so  far  as  it  can  be  mechanically  separa- 
ted, 10  to  40  pei  cent.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the 
fresh  bones  contain  11  to  14  per  cent,  of  water,  and  the 
muscles  from  60  to  over  75  per  cent.  The  average  of  the 
results  of  numerous  investigations  made  on  the  various 
farm  animals  gives  them  approximately  the  following 
composition;  • 

Bones 9  per  cent. 

Flesh  and  tendons 40        " 

MechanicaUy  separable  fat 24       *' 

The  remaining  27  per  cent,  comprises  the  blood,  hide  and 
hair,  entrails,  and  the  contents  of  stomach  and  intestines. 
Fuller  details  regarding  the  proportions  of  the  various 
parts  in  lean  and  fat  animals  of  various  kinds  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Appendix. 

It  should  be  added  that  the  volume  and  weight  of  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  are  very  various, 
according  to  whether  the  animal  has  received  a  more  or 
less  bulky  fodder.  For  example,  in  some  investigations 
made  by  E.  v.  Wolff,  in  Hohenheim,  with  sheep,  the  fol- 
lowing averages  were  obtained : 


No.  of 
Experiments. 

Fodder. 

Average  live 

weight  per 

head. 

Pounds. 

Contents  of 

Btomach  and 

intestines. 

Pounds. 

Contents  in 
per  cent,  of 
live  weight. 

3* 

Chiefly  straw 

93.8 
100.1 
124.2 

20.9 
16.0 
11.2 

22.3 

2* 

Hay,  with  small  amount  of 
beans                 

15.9 

6t 

Clover  hay,  potatoes,  peas, 
and  com 

9.04 

♦  "Die  Versuchs- Station  Hohenheim,"  1866-1870,  p.  62. 
f  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  L,  569. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Grouven  *  found  in  the  case  of  oxen : 


No.  of 
Experiments. 

Fodder. 

TJ,ro         Contents  of 
weSt       stomach  and 

Contents    ia 
per  cent,  of 
live  weight. 

4 

Straw 

1,199 
1,419 

199 
183 

16.6 

7 

Fattening  fodder. 

9.4 

Fatted  hogs  give  a  less  proportion,  viz.,  4  to  6  per  cent. 
Lawes  and  Gilbert  f,  in  iiftj-nine  experiments,  found  the 
proportion  of  stomach  and  intestines,  together  with  their 
content&j  to  range  from  5.59  per  cent,  to  10.13  per  cent,  of 
the  live  weight,  the  average  being  7.52  per  cent. 


§  2.  The  Non-Nitrogenous  Constituents  op  the  Animal  Body. 

Water. — One  of  the  most  important  constituents  of  the 
animal  body  is  water. 

This  substance  constitutes,  under  most  circumstances, 
more  than  half  of  the  entire  weight  of  the  animal ;  it  is 
contained  in  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  forms  as  essential 
an  ingredient  of  the  so-called  solid  tissues  as  do  any  of 
their  other  components. 

In  the  new-born  animal,  water  constitutes  80  to  85  per 
cent,  of  the  total  weight,  but  during  the  period  of  rapid 
growth  the  proportion  of  dry  matter  increases  and  that  of 
water  diminishes,  so  that  the  mature,  but  not  fattened, 
animal  may  contain  50  to  60  per  cent,  of  water.  In  the 
process  of  fattening,  the  percentage  of  water  decreases 

*  Zweiter  Salzmunde  Bericht,  1864,  p.  137,  and  Erst^r  Bericht,  1862, 
p.  260. 

t  Jour.  Roy.  Ag.  Sec,  Series  I.,  XXI.,  449. 


8  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

stili  more,  falling,  according  to  the  experiments  of  Lawes 
and  Gilbert,  below  50  per  cent.,  and  in  one  case  (a  very 
fat  sheep)  to  35.2  per  cent,  of  the  whole  animal,  or  33  per 
cent,  of  the  dressed  carcass. 

It  is  sometimes  stated  that,  in  fattening,  the  body  loses 
water,  its  place  being  taken  by  nitrogenous  matters  and 
especially  by  fat,  but  the  author  has  not  been  able  to  find 
any  account  of  experiments  which  substantiate  this  view. 

Fat  animals,  it  is  true,  contain  a  smaller  percentage  of 
water  and  a  larger  percentage  of  fat  than  lean  ones,  but 
this  is  not  sufficient  to  prove  the  point,  for  an  increase  in 
the  ahsolute  amount  of  fat  contained  in  an  animal  would 
cause  a  decrease  in  the  relative  amount  (percentage)  of  all 
the  other  ingredients,  water  included. 

The  only  method  by  which  the  truth  of  the  above  view 
can  be  determined,  is  to  compare  the  absolute  weight  of 
water,  fat,  albuminoids,  etc.,  in  lean  and  fat  animals  of  the 
same  breed  and  as  nearly  alike  as  possible. 

Such  comparisons  have  been  made  by  Lawes  and  Gil- 
bert,* in  the  follo\ving  manner.  Ten  animals  of  different 
kinds,  and  in  different  stages  of  fatness,  were  slaughtered, 
and  the  percentages  of  ash,  albuminoids,  fat,  and  water  in 
the  whole  animal  determined,  and  by  this  means  data  were 
obtained  for  estimating  the  absolute  amounts  of  these  sub- 
stances in  the  body  of  a  living  animal  whose  weight  was 
known. 

A  large  number  of  animals  were  then  fattened,  and, 
their  composition  before  and  after  being  estimated  as 
above,  it  was  easy  to  determine  the  amomit  of  each  in- 
gredient which  had  been  produced,  and  from  this  the  per- 
centage composition  of  the  increase  in  weight. 

*  Jour,  Roy.  Agr.  Soc.  Series  I.,  XXI.,  456. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


9 


The  following  table  shows  the  average  results  for  oxen, 
sheep,  and  hogs : 

Average  Composition  of  the  Increase  of  Live  Weight  in  Fattening, 


Ash. 
Per  cent. 

Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Fat. 
Per  cent. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

Per  cent. 

Water. 
Per  cent. 

98  Oxen 

1.47 
2.34* 
0.06 1 

7.69 
7.13 
6.44 

66.3 
70.4 
71.5 

75.4 
79.9 
78.0 

24.6 

348  Sheep , 

20.1 

80  Hogs 

22.0 

Average 

1.10 

7.26 

67.8 

76.2 

23  8 

It  is  evident  from  the  method  followed  that  the  results 
are  not  absolutely  accurate,  but  they  suffice  to  show  that 
in  fattening,  a  gain  of  water  takes  place,  though  it  is  rela- 
tively small. 

The  same  conclusion  is  indicated  by  recent  experiments 
by  Henneberg,  Kern,  and  Wattenberg,;]:  on  the  fattening 
of  sheep. 

They  slaughtered  animals  in  two  stages  of  fattening, 
and  also,  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment,  others  which 
had  not  been  fattened.  The  following  numbers,  taken 
from  their  results,  show  the  total  gain  of  weight  by  the 
"  fat "  and  the  "  very  fat "  animals,  and  also  the  excess  of 
fat  and  flesh  contained  in  their  bodies  over  that  found  in 
the  unf  atted  ones : 


*  Probably  too  high,  owing  to  dirt  in  the  wool, 
f  Probably  too  low. 

if  Biedermann's  Central- Blatt.,  Jahrg.  8,  p.  363 
1* 


10 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Lean, 
rounds. 

Fat. 
Pounds. 

Very  fat. 
Poundfl, 

Original  weight 

90.53 
90.53 

89.54 

116.45 

26.91 

89  10 

Final  weight 

123  86 

Gain 

34.76 

Gain  of  fat 



24.51 
—0.33 

33  78 

Gain  of  flesh, .    . ,, 

0  51 

Total,  fat  and  flesh 

23.18 

34.29 

The  increase  of  fat  and  flesh  is,  in  each  case,  less  than 
the  total  gain,  showing  that  there  was  a  gain  of  some- 
thing else,  and  making  it  improbable  that  any  essential 
loss  of  water  took  place,  especially  as  the  flesh  was  found 
to  contain  almost  exactly  the  same  percentage  of  water  in 
the  very  fat  and  in  the  lean  animals,  viz. : 

Lean 79.41  per  cent. 

Very  fat 79.02       *' 

Unfortunately,  however,  no  such  complete  analyses  of 
the  whole  animal  were  made  in  these  trials  as  in  those  of 
Lawes  and  Gilbert,  and  hence  the  data  which  they  afford 
are  insufficient  to  settle  the  question. 

The  dry  substance  of  the  animal  body  consists  of 
organic  and  inorganic  matter,  and  the  former,  again,  of 
nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  materials. 

By  organic  matter,  in  the  above  sense,  is  understood 
matter  which  is  combustible,  and  which,  when  subjected 
to  the  action  of  fire,  disappears,  leaving  the  irwrganic  mat- 
ter behind  as  ashes. 

The  terms  are  not  strictly  coiTect,  since  the  ash  of  a 


MANUAL   OF   CxVTTLE- FEEDING.  11 

piece  of  flesh,  or  of  a  mass  of  wood,  was  as  really  organ- 
ized^ and  formed  as  truly  a  part  of  it,  as  the  so-called  or- 
ganic portion,  but  they  are  in  common  use  with  this 
meaning.  The  organic  matters  of  the  animal  body  are 
classified,  according  to  whether  they  contain  the  element 
nitrogen  or  not,  as  nitrogenous  or  non-nitrogenous. 

Fat. — Of  the  non-nitrogenous  substances  fat  is  by  far 
the  most  abundant.  It  is  present  in  the  blood  in  minute 
quantities,  generally  constituting  not  more  than  0.1  to  0.3 
per  cent,  of  it;  it  exists  in  larger 
quantity  in  the  substance  of  the 
nerves  and  in  the  bones,  but  is  chief- 
ly found  enclosed  in  special  cells  or 
tissues  under  the  skin,  on  the  kid- 
neys, omentum,  and  mesentery,  and 
in  the  flesh  between  the  bundles  of 

muscular  fibres.  Pig.  l._(Settegast).    Fat 

The  thin  membrane  which  com-  ^^^^^' 
poses  the  cell- walls  of  the  fat- tissue  is  a  nitrogenous  sub- 
stance, and  constitutes  only  0.8  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
tissue  when  the  latter  is  entirely  filled  with  fat,  but  when 
this  is  not  the  case  its  amount  may  rise  to  4  per  cent.,  or 
over. 

The  quantity  of  water  in  the  fresh  fat-tissue  stands  in  a 
fixed  relation  to  the  amount  of  membrane  (about  5  or  6  to 
1),  so  that  the  quantity  of  water  may  vary  from  4  to  over  24 
per  cent.,  according  to  whether  the  cells  are  more  or  less 
laden  with  fat. 

Most  of  the  fat-cells  of  the  living  body  contain  liquid, 
perfectly  transparent  fat,  but  its  consistency  varies  in  the 
different  organs;  it  solidifies  to  a  solid,  butter-like  mass 
more  or  less  easily,  according  to  whether  the  oily  or  the 
solid  fats  predominate.    The  appearance,  also,  as  well  as  the 


12 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


smell  and  taste,  of  fat  taken  from  different  kinds  of 
animals,  or  from  different  parts  of  tlie  same  animal,  is  very 
variable,  on  account  of  admixtures  of  small  quantities  of 
coloring  matters  and  volatile  substances  of  all  sorts ;  but 
this  has  almost  no  influence  upon  the  elementary  composi- 
tion of  the  fat,  which  is  very  constant. 

Schulze  and  Keinecke,*  at  the  Weende  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, found  twenty-eight  samples  of  mutton,  beef,  and  pork 
fat,  taken  from  different  individuals  and  from  different 
parts  of  the  body,  and  freed  from  the  fat-membrane  and 
fi'om  water,  to  have  the  foUowmg  composition  : 


If 

^1 

Cakbow. 

Htdrogen. 

Oxygen. 

Av. 
Per 
cent. 

Max. 
Per 
cent. 

Min. 
Per 
cent. 

Av. 
Per 
cent. 

Max. 
Per 
cent. 

Min. 
Per 
cent. 

Av. 
Per 
cent. 

11.59 
11.52 
11.36 

Max. 
Per 
cent. 

Min. 
Per 
cent. 

Beef  fat 

10 

6 

12 

76.50 
76.54 
76.61 

76.74    76.27 

11.91 
11.94 
12.03 

12.11 
12.07 
12.16 

11.76 
11.86 
11.87 

11.86 
11.83 
11.56 

11.15 

Pork  fat  . 

76.78 
76.85 

76.29 

76.27 

11.15 

Mutton  fat 

11.00 

Average  of  all  the  An- 
alyses in  round  numbers. 

76.50 

12.00 

11.50 

Other  results  were 


Fat  from 

Carbon— per  cent. 

Hydrogen — per  cent. 

Oxygen — per  cent. 

Dog     

76.63 
76.56 

77.07 
76.62 

12.05 
11.90 
11.69 
11.94 

11.32 

Cat 

11.44 

Horse 

Man 

11.24 
11.44 

Versuchs-Stationen,  IX,  97. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  13 

It  is  evident  from  these  figures  that  in  all  calculations 
regarding  the  gain  or  loss  of  fat  bj  the  body,  we  may  treat 
this  fat,  in  spite  of  the  numerous  modifications  which  it 
undergoes  in  the  various  organs,  as  chemically  identical, 
without  falling  into  any  appreciable  error. 

The  quantity  of  fat  which  may  be  laid  up  in  the  body 
is  often  enormous.  For  example,  in  the  case  of  fattened 
neat-cattle  and  swine,  the  fat  may  make  up  from  25  to 
over  -1:0  per  cent,  of  the  live  weight  of  these  animals,  or 
from  two  to  three  times  as  much  as  all  the  nitrogenous 
substances  present.  In  lean  animals,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  amount  of  fat  is  much  less,  and  that  of  the  nitro- 
genous substances  relatively  greater. 

Other  Non-Nitrogenous  Organic  Substances. — All 
the  non-nitrogenous  organic  substances,  other  than  fat, 
which  occur  in  the  body,  and  are  to  be  regarded  as  normal 
constituents  of  it,  are  very  inconsiderable  in  quantity,  al- 
though often  of  importance  for  the  functions  of  the  organs 
or  fiuids  in  which  they  are  found. 

The  gastric  juice  (the  digestive  fluid  of  the  stomach), 
and  also  the  contents  of  the  large  and  small  intestines,  and 
sometimes  the  chyle  of  the  thoracic  duct  (see  p.  68),  con- 
tain lactic  acid,  the  well-known  acid  of  sour  milk,  while 
the  juices  of  the  flesh  contain  another  acid — sa7'kolactic 
acid — isomeric*  with  the  former. 

The  blood,  and  in  fact  almost  all  the  animal  fluids,  also 
contain  minute  quantities  of  one  or  the  other  of  these 
acids. 

Sugar  is  likewise  found  in  the  blood,  but  at  most  in 
quantities  not  exceeding  0.015  per  cent.,  except  in  the 


*  Two  substances  are  said  to  be  isomeric  when  they  have  the  same 
percentage  composition,  but  different  chemical  properties. 


14  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

blood  of  the  hepatic  vein  (the  vein  leading  from  the  liver 
toward  the  heart),  where  the  amount  rises  to  about  0.1 
per  cent. 

The  liver  itself  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  a  sub- 
stance called  glycogen^  somewhat  resembling  starch,  which 
is  continually  yielding  sugar  by  its  decomposition.  The 
sugar  in  the  hepatic  vein  has  its  source  in  the  glycogen  of 
the  liver. 

The  muscles  likewise  contain  glycogen,  and  also  small 
quantities  of  a  non-nitrogenous  substance  peculiar  to 
themselves,  and  resembling  sugar  in  composition  and 
properties,  called  inosite. 

Furthermore,  various  non-nitrogenous  organic  com- 
pounds occur  in  the  bile,  and  innmnerable  such  in  the  so- 
called  extractive  matters  of  the  tissues  and  juices,  that 
is  in  the  mixture  of  substances  obtained  by  treating  the 
flesh,  etc.,  with  alcohol.  The  "  extractive  matters"  give  to 
meat  soup  its  agreeable  taste  and  smell.  The  weight  of 
all  these  substances,  however,  is  inconsiderable,  and  van- 
ishes almost  entirely  in  comparison  with  the  great  quanti- 
ties of  fat  and  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  whole  body. 

§  3.  Nitrogenous  Organic  Substances. 

Of  the  nitrogenous  constituents  of  the  body,  there  are 
three  principal  groups  to  be  considered,  viz.,  the  Albu- 
minoids, Gelatigenous  Substances,  and  PIorny  Matters. 

The  albuminoids  are  by  far  the  most  important  of  the 
three,  since  all  manifestations  of  animal  life  are  dependent 
chiefly  on  them  and  the  organs  which  are  composed  of 
them,  and  since  they  furnish  the  material  out  of  which 
the  members  of  both  the  other  groups  are  formed ;  while 
the  latter,  once  formed,  do  not  appear  to  be  capable  of 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  15 

being  altered  back  into  albuminoids,  or  of  performing  the 
fmictions  of  the  latter  in  nourishing  the  body. 

Albuminoids. — The  albuminoids  are  found  in  manifold 
modifications  in  all  the  organs  and  fluids  of  the  healthy 
body,  except  the  urine,  and  all  these  modifications  suffer 
an  almost  continual  mutual  alteration  under  the  influence 
of  the  vital  processes. 

Notwithstanding  their  diversity,  however,  they  have 
many  and  marked  characteristics  in  common. 

As  their  name  implies  (albuminoid — albumin-like),  they 
resemble  albumin  or  white  of  egg.  Like  it,  they  are  des- 
titute of  any  crystalline  form  (amorphous).  Most  of  them 
exist  in  at  least  two  modifications— a  soluble  and  an  in- 
soluble one.  In  the  soluble  form  they  constitute,  when  dried 
at  a  gentle  heat,  transparent,  white  or  yellowish  solids, 
destitute  of  taste  or  smell,  and  soluble  in  water ;  in  the 
insoluble  modification  they  form  white,  fiocculent  or  fibrous 
masses,  insoluble  in  water,  and,  like  the  soluble  forms, 
having  neither  taste  nor  smell. 

The  soluble  albuminoids  are  very  readily  converted  into 
the  insoluble  form  by  a  variety  of  means  ;  in  some  cases  by 
heat,  in  others  by  the  action  of  acids  or  other  bodies,  and  in 
still  others  from  some  cause  not  yet  known.  This  change  is 
called  coagulation;  it  is  apparently  only  a  change  in  the 
condition  and  not  in  the  nature  of  the  substance.  At  any 
rate,  it  is  not  accompanied  by  any  change  in  composition. 

Almost  innumerable  varieties  of  albmninoids  have  been 
described,  and  much  confusion  exists  as  to  their  properties, 
and  relations  to  each  other.  For  our  present  purpose, 
however,  it  will  suffice  to  indicate  the  three  groups  into 
which  these  bodies  may  be  classified — viz. : 

Albumin  (represented  by  white  of  Qg^^  Fih^n  (repre- 
sented by  lean  meat),  and  Casein  (the  basis  of  cheese). 


16  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Albumin  predominates  in  all  animal  fluids,  especially 
in  the  so-called  chyle,  in  the  colorless  sermn  (see  below)  of 
the  blood,  and  in  the  fluid  contents  of  the  blood-corpus- 
cles, where  it  is  tinted  red  by  the  coloring  matter  of  the 
blood.  It  also  occm-s  in  the  juice  of  the  muscles  and  in 
the  nerves. 

It  is  distinguished  by  the  property  of  coagulating  when 
heated  above  a  certain  point.  For  pure  albumin  this 
point  is  165°  F.  ;  for  solutions  of  albumin  it  is  higher  in 
proportion  as  they  are  more  dilute. 

(A  good  example  of  coagulation  is  furnished  in  the  boil- 
ing of  an  egg.  As  the  heat  of  the  boiling  water  penetrates 
the  egg  the  albmnin  changes  from  a  transparent  soluble 
liquid  to  an  opaque  solid  w^hich  no  longer  dissolves  in 
water.) 

Fibrin. — The  blood  of  all  the  higher  animals,  shortly 
after  it  is  removed  from  the  body,  partially  solidifles,  and 
separates  into  two  parts,  the  "  clot "  and  a  yellowish  liquid 
called  the  serum.  The  serum  contains  albumin  and  the 
dissolved  matters  of  the  blood  generally  ;  the  clot  contains 
an  albuminoid  known  as  hlood-fibriii,  colored  red  by  the 
blood-corpuscles  which  it  has  entangled  within  itself  while 
coagulating. 

Authorities  differ  as  to  the  nature  of  this  so-called 
spontaneous  coagulation,  and  for  our  present  purpose  it  is 
not  necessary  to  enter  upon  the  subject. 

When  purified,  as  far  as  possible,  from  adhering  im- 
purities, blood-fibrin  is  a  white,  fibrous-looking,  elastic 
substance,  in  which  the  microscope  shows  no  traces  of  any 
structure,  fibrous  or  otherwise. 

Flesh-fibrin^  the  chief  constituent  of  aU  muscular  fibres, 
differs  from  blood-fibrin  in  the  fact  that  it  appears  in  or- 
ganized structures  in  the  form  of  variously  shaped  and 


MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  17 

grouped  cells.  Flesh-fibrin  behaves,  also,  somewhat  differ- 
ently to  chemical  reagents  from  the  coagulated  blood-fibrin, 
but,  like  all  insoluble  modifications,  it  is  easily  converted 
by  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids  into  a  soluble  form. 

Casein  is  found  in  considerable  quantity  only  in  milk  ; 
it  is  a  product  of  the  milk-glands  and  therefore  not  to  be 
looked  upon  as  a  constituent  of  the  body  in  general.  It 
does  not  coagulate  on  heating ;  the  tenacious  skin  which 
forms  on  the  surface  of  milk  when  it  evaporates  is  a  sub- 
stance altered  by  the  action  of  the  air. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  casein  separates  almost  com- 
pletely in  a  coagulated  state  when  a  small  quantity  of 
rennet  is  added  to  the  milk,  as  in  making  cheese,  or  when 
the  milk  is  gently  warmed  with  dilute  acids  or  various 
other  substances,  as  well  as  in  the  natural  souring  of 
milk. 

Composition. — All  the  albuminoids  contain,  as  essen- 
tial constituents,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and 
sulphur ;  and  these  constituents  are  present  in  such  con- 
stant quantities  that  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  the 
various  albuminoids  from  each  other  by  their  percentage 
composition,  samples  of  the  same  albuminoid  from  different 
sources  often  showing  as  great  differences  as  exist  between 
members  of  different  groups.  The  following  numbers 
show  the  extremes  of  variation  : 


Carbon 52-54  per  cent. 

Hydrogen , 7  "     ** 

Nitrogen 15-17     "      " 

Oxygen 24-21     "      *♦ 

Sulphur 1-L5   **     " 

Generally  the  average  amount  of  nitrogen  is  assumed  to 
be  16  per  cent.,  and  the  total  quantity  of  albmninoids  in  a 


18  MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEBING. 

substance  is  calculated  by  multiplying  the  percentage  of 
nitrogen  foimd  by  analysis  by  6.25  (6.25  x  16=100). 

The  phosphorus  which  always  accompanies  the  albu- 
minoids seems  to  be  held  only  loosely  as  phosphoric  acid, 
and  not  to  be  an  essential  ingredient  of  them. 

Gelatigenous  Substances. — The  gelatigenous  substances 
constitute  scarcely  less  of  the  weight  of  the  body  than  the 
albuminoids. 

They  form  the  nitrogenous  organic  substance  of  bone 
and  cartilage,  and  make  up  the  larger  part  of  the  mass  of 
the  tendons,  ligaments,  and  connective  tissue,  and  of  the 
skin.  By  protracted  boiling  with  water  the  gelatigenous 
substances  are  completely  dissolved,  and  converted  into 
glue.  Their  composition  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
albuminoids,  except  that  they  generally  contain  somewhat 
less  carbon  (50  to  51  per  cent.),  and  in  case  of  cartilage  also 
less  nitrogen  (about  15  per  cent.),  while  the  gelatigenous 
substance  of  the  bones,  tendons,  and  skin,  on  the  contrary, 
is  richer  in  nitrogen  (about  IS  per  cent.).  The  sulphiu*  is 
also  either  entirely  lacking,  or  is  present  in  smaller  quan- 
tity than  in  the  albmninoids. 

Horny  ^Iatters. — The  horny  matters  are  found  chiefly 
on  the  outer  surface  of  the  body,  either  in  a  thin  layer, 
as  the  epidermis  (scarf-skin),  or  in  well-characterized  tissues, 
as  hair,  wool,  horns,  nails,  hoofs,  claws,  feathers,  etc.  The 
average  composition  of  all  these  tissues  is  very  uniform  : 

Carbon  50-51  per  cent. 

Hydrogen about     7  " 

Nitrogen 16-17       ** 

Oxygen 22-20       " 

Sulphur 3-5        *' 

In  the  main,  therefore,  they  differ  from  the  albuminoids 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  19 

and  gelatigenous  substances  only  in  containing  more  sul- 
phur, while  the  proportions  of  the  remaining  constituents 
are  almost  the  same. 

AvEEAGE  Composition. — It  will  be  seen  that  all  the 
important  nitrogenous  substances  which  occur  in  the  body 
are  very  similar  and,  on  the  average,  almost  identical  in 
composition  with  the  pure  albuminoids  out  of  which  they 
were  all  formed,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  the  processes  of 
nutrition  and  growth. 

This  agreement  was  also  found  in  the  investigations  of 
Lawes  and  Gilbert  on  whole  bodies  of  animals,  already  re- 
ferred to.  In  these  experiments  the  total  quantity  of 
water,  fixed  mineral  matters,  fat,  and  organic  substances 
other  than  fat  was  determined,  and  the  nitrogen  of  the 
latter  was  estimated. 

The  amount  of  ''  organic  substances  other  than  fat " 
found  directly,  agreed  almost  exactly  with  that  obtained 
by  multiplying  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  found  by  the 
usual  factor,  6.25  ;  in  other  w^ords,  all  the  organic  sub- 
stances other  than  fat  were  found  to  contain,  on  the  aver- 
age, almost  exactly  16  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

In  the  average  of  all  the  experiments,  the  organic  matter 
other  than  fat  was  found  to  be  11.67  per  cent,  of  the  dressed 
w^eight,  and  the  amount  of  albuminoids  calculated  from  the 
nitrogen,  11.83  per  cent.  This  shows  at  once  that  all  the 
nitrogenous  organic  matters  of  the  body  aside  from  the 
three  groups  already  mentioned,  e.  ^.,  certain  constituents 
of  the  bile,  of  the  juice  of  the  muscles,  etc.,  have,  on  ac- 
coimt  of  their  relatively  small  quantity,  no  material  influ- 
ence on  the  elementary  composition  of  the  organic  sub- 
stance of  the  body,  and  especially  none  on  the  percentage 
of  nitrogen. 


20  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

§  4.  InorganiCj  or  Non-volatile  Matters. 

Amount. — The  total  quantity  of  the  inorganic  portion, 
or  ash,  of  the  animal  body  is,  in  round  numbers, 

In  neat  cattle 4-5     per  cent,  of  the  live  weight. 

*' sheep 2.8-3.5       ''  '' 

"swine 1.8-3.0      "  " 

In  lean  animals  the  amount  approaches  the  maximum, 
in  fat  animals  the  minimum.  Phosphoric  acid  and  lime  are 
present  in  about  equal  proportions  and  make  up  together 
about  four-fifths  of  the  total  quantity  of  ash,  while  the  other 
fifth  consists  of  potash,  soda,  magnesia,  chlorine,  sulphuric 
acid,  carbonic  acid,  and,  to  a  very  minute  extent,  of  silica. 

The  sulphur,  mentioned  above  as  forming  part  of  all 
the  important  nitrogenous  substances  of  the  body,  is  not 
included  in  the  ash. 

In  the  bones,  as  is  well-known,  the  quantity  of  mineral 
matter  (bone-ash)  is  especially  great,  and  amounts,  on  the 
average,  in  a  full-grown  animal,  to  about  two-thirds  of  the 
dry,  fat-free  substance  of  the  bones. 

Immediately  after  birth,  the  dried  bones  contain  only 
about  50  per  cent.,  and  in  advanced  age  often  as  much  as 
75  per  cent,  of  ash.  The  outer  and  more  solid  layers  are 
always  richer  in  ash  than  the  inner  and  porous  parts,  es- 
pecially in  the  hollow  bones.  At  least  seven-eighths  of  the 
total  bone-ash  is  phosphate  of  lime,  the  remainder  is  car- 
bonate of  lime  with  small  quantities  of  magnesia,  fluorine, 
and  soda. 

Besides  phosphoric  acid  and  lime,  the  most  important 
inorganic  constituents  of  the  body  are  potash,  soda,  and 
chlorine  (the  two  latter  generally  combined  to  form  chlo- 
ride of  sodium  or  common  salt). 

Need  of  a  Continual  Supply. — The  quantity  of  these 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  21 

substances  in  the  various  tissues  and  fluids,  while  it  is  very 
constant,  is  relatively  small,  except  in  the  case  of  the 
bones,  but  they  are  absolutely  essential  constituents  of  all 
those  parts  of  the  body  in  which  the  vital  processes  are 
most  actively  carried  on,  and  in  which,  consequently,  de 
composition  and  rebuilding  are  continually  taking  place. 
As  a  consequence,  they  are  continually  excreted  from  the 
body  in  considerable  quantities  with  the  final  products  of 
the  metamorphosis  of  tissue,  and  the  vital  processes  would 
soon  suffer  important  disturbances  were  not  a  continual, 
almost  daily,  supply  provided. 

Salt-hunger. — Numerous  experiments  have  shown  that 
when  animals  are  fed  on  food  from  which  the  mineral 
matters  (salts)  have  been  extracted  as  completely  as  pos- 
sible, they  become  sleepy,  weak,  especially  in  the  extremi- 
ties, and  finally  die  from  lack  of  mineral  food,  although 
the  quantity  of  organic  food  eaten  and  digested  may  be 
amply  sufficient  to  sustain  life. 

As  an  example  of  these  riiay  be  mentioned  some  experi- 
ments made  at  the  Physiological  Institute  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Munich,  by  Forster,*  on  pigeons  and  dogs. 

The  pigeons  were  fed  with  starch  and  casein,  made  as 
free  from  ash  as  possible ;  the  dogs  with  meat  repeatedly 
extracted  with  water  (to  remove  the  mineral  matters)  and 
with  fat,  sometimes  with  addition  of  starch.  The  results 
were  the  same  in  every  case.  All  the  animals  became, 
after  a  few  days,  in  consequence  of  "  salt-hunger,"  dull  and 
inactive  ;  a  rapidly  increasing  weakness  of  the  muscles  ap- 
peared, particularly  in  the  extremities,  and  toward  the  end 
of  the  experiment  cramps  and  shivering  showed  a  great 
irritability  of  the  nervous  system. 

♦Zeitschr.  f.  Biologic,  IX.,  297. 


22  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

The  digestion,  however,  as  well  as  the  utilization  of  the 
digested  nutrients,  was  exactly  the  same  as  under  normal 
conditions,  and  the  animals,  when  killed  at  the  end  of  the 
experiments,  were  found  to  be  apparently  well  nourished, 
and  with  all  the  organs  in  a  healthy  state. 

We  must  conclude  from  these,  and  numerous  other  simi- 
lar researches,  that  the  phenomena  of  dulness  and  weak- 
ness observed  in  all  such  experiments  are  due  directly  and 
exclusively  to  the  lack  of  inorganic  ingredients  in  the  food, 
and  that  the  comparatively  speedy  death  is  caused  by 
the  separation  from  the  animal  organs  and  juices  of  those 
salts  necessary  for  the  due  performance  of  their  functions, 
and  their  removal  fi-om  the  body  in  the  urine. 

Essential  and  Accidental  Salts. — The  greater  por- 
tion of  the  inorganic  matters  of  the  body  exists,  in  com- 
bination with  organic  substances,  as  an  essential  constitu- 
ent of  the  various  tissues  and  juices.  Strictly  speaking,  it 
forms  part  of  the  organic  (or  organized)  portion  of  the 
body,,  Its  amount  is  very  constant.  Another  variable 
and  much  smaller  portion,  which  we  may  call  accidental, 
exists  simply  dissolved  in  the  fluids  of  the  body,  without 
really  forming  part  of  it.  This  portion  can  never  be  very 
great,  even  with  an  abundant  supply  of  salts  in  the  food, 
since  the  latter  are  rapidly  excreted  in  the  urine,  and  the 
more  rapidly  the  greater  their  quantity ;  while  those  salts 
which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  tissues  can  be  ex- 
creted no  faster  than  they  are  set  at  liberty  by  the  using 
up  of  the  tissue,  and,  in  fact,  even  when  thus  set  at  liberty, 
may  recombine,  in  part,  with  organic  matter  to  form  new 
tissue. 

This  latter  fact  is  particularly  noticeable  when  the  food 
is  poor  in  salts.  Thus,  it  was  found  in  the  experiments 
already  described  (p.  21)  that  the  excretion  of  salts  was 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  23 

least  when  the  food  was  most  abundant  but  was  poorest  in 
salts,  showing  that  nature  can  be  very  economical  and  get 
on  with  a  minimum.  There  is  a  limit  to  this,  however. 
The  excretion  of  salts  can  be  diminished  but  not  entirely  pre- 
vented, and  if  the  supply  of  salts  is  too  small,  the  animal 
loses  mineral  matter  continually,  and  sooner  or  later  dies. 

Practical  Conclusions. — In  practice,  in  the  feeding  of 
mature  animals  intended  to  be  kept  in  a  medium  condition, 
or  to  be  fattened,  a  lack  of  the  necessary  mineral  matters 
is  scarcely  ever  to  be  feared.  They  are,  indeed,  generally 
present  in  large  excess. 

Only  common  salt  is  in  certain  respects  an  exception,  as 
will  be  explained  more  fully  below. 

The  opinion  is  indeed  somewhat  prevalent  that  a  lack  of 
phosphate  of  lime  in  the  fodder  may  be  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  disease,  prevalent  among  cattle  in  some 
neighborhoods,  called  rickets. 

This  explanation  is,  however,  at  most,  only  valid  in  case 
this  lack  was  experienced  by  the  animal  from  its  earliest 
youth  up.  In  the  case  of  full-grown  and  healthy  animals, 
the  lack  of  phosphate  of  lime  cannot  well  be  the  cause  of 
the  disease,  since  experiment  has  shown  that  such  animals, 
when  they  are  insufficiently  supplied  with  this  substance, 
die  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  and  before  any  essential 
change  takes  place  in  the  composition  of  the  bones. 

Young  and  rapidly-growing  animals  naturally  need,  both 
relatively  and  absolutely,  a  greater  quantity  of  phosphate 
of  lime  than  old  and  full  grown  ones.  In  the  feeding  of 
milk  cows,  too,  regard  must  be  had  to  the  quantity  of 
phosphate  of  lime  in  the  fodder.  (See  Part  III.,  chapters 
Y.  and  YI.) 

Uses  of  Common  Salt. — As  mentioned  above,  salt 
occupies,  to  a  certain  extent,  an  exceptional  position. 


24  MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Besides  its  strictly  physiological  functions,  it  is  of  use  in 
facilitating  the  passage  of  the  albuminoids  of  the  food  f roni 
the  digestive  canal  into  the  blood,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
in  facilitating  the  circulation  and  thus  increasing  the 
energy  of  the  vital  processes.  For  this  piu'jDose  a  certain 
excess  of  salt  seems  to  be  necessary,  which  circulates 
rapidly  through  the  body,  and  is  excreted  in  the  urine  in 
quantity  corresponding  to  the  amount  taken.  This  need 
of  salt  is  especially  manifest  in  certain  kinds  of  herbivura, 
and  particularly  in  such  as,  like  our  domestic  animals,  are 
largely  stall-fed  and,  by  means  of  abundant  fodder,  are 
caused  to  produce  largely  either  flesh  and  fat,  milk,  or 
work. 

To  this  may  be  added  that  many  fodders  in  common 
use,  such  as  potatoes,  roots,  grains,  etc.,  are  comparatively 
poor  in  sodium  chloride  and  rich  in  potash  salts,  which 
latter,  it  has  been  found,  cause  an  increased  excretion  of 
salt  tlu'ough  the  urine. 

In  view,  then,  of  the  absolute  demand  for  a  certain 
amount  of  salt  for  the  preservation  of  life  and  the  great 
advantages  of  a  certain  excess  of  it,  it  is  plain  that  it  is  te 
be  regarded  not  as  a  iuxuiy  but  as  a  necessity. 


// 


•5^« 


/# 


^^- 


CHAPTEE  11. 

COMPONENTS  OF  FODDERS.— NUTRIENTS. 
§  1.  Definitions. 

Nutrient,  Fodder,  Ration. — In  the  preceding  chapter 
we  have  seen  that  the  animal  body,  in  spite  of  the  great 
complexity  of  its  structure,  may  be  considered,  in  a  general 
way,  as  composed  of  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  or- 
ganic substances,  and  of  mineral  matters. 

Since,  now,  these  substances  are  being  constantly  de- 
stroyed in  the  body  in  the  performance  of  the  vital  func- 
tions, it  is  necessary  that  the  animal  should  receive  from 
without  a  supply  of  substances  identical  with  or  similar  to 
those  destroyed,  and  which  can  be  assimilated  by  the  tis- 
sues and  fluids  of  the  body  to  replace  those  lost  and  enable 
the  vital  actions  to  continue. 

Any  single  chemical  compound,  such  as  albumin,  fat, 
starchj  sugar,  etc.,  which  is  capable  of  aiding  to  replace 
this  loss  is  called  a  nutrient. 

Such  substances  do  not  occur  in  a  pure,  unmixed  state 
in  nature,  but  are  found  in  various  forms  and  proportions 
in  all  fodders. 

By  a  fodder,  or  feeding-stuff,  we  imderstand  any  natu- 
ral or  artificial  product  which  is  used  as  food  for  animals  ; 
e.  g.,  hay,  oil  cake,  roots. 

Since  the  animal  organism  not  only  contains  various 
nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  substances,  but  contains 
them  in  proportions  varying  only  within  narrow  limits ; 
and  since  the  rate  at  which  each  is  destroyed  in  the  body 


26  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

is  also  fixed  witliin  certain  limits ;  it  is  plain  tliat  tlie  food 
which  the  animal  receives  must  also  contain  the  various 
nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  in  proper  pro- 
portions. 

A  fodder  usually  contains  several  or  all  of  the  groups 
of  nutrients,  but  mav  not  contain  them  in  the  proper  pro- 
portions to  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  organism.  Thus,  in 
the  examples  given  above,  good  hay  contains  all  the 
groups  of  nutrients  in  proper  proportions,  and  will  sus- 
tain an  herbivorous  animal  indefinitely ;  while  oil  cake 
and  roots  contain  an  excess,  the  one  of  albuminoids,  the 
other  of  bodies  of  the  starch  or  pectin  groups,  and  so,  if 
capable  of  sustaining  life,  do  it  with  a  great  waste  of  the 
one  or  the  other  material.     They  are  one-sided  foods. 

By  combining  several  one-sided  foods,  we  may  prepare 
a  mixture  which  shall  contain  all  the  groups  of  mitrients 
in  proper  proportions  and  be  capable  of  sustaining  an 
animal  economically.  Such  a  mixture  we  may  call  a  ra- 
tion or  a  comjylete  food. 

The  proportions  of  the  various  nutrients  in  the  common 
fodders  and  the  proper  combining  of  fodders  to  form  ra- 
tions suitable  for  various  purposes  will  be  treated  of  in 
Parts  II.  and  III.,  and  we  shall  concern  ourselves  here 
only  with  the  occurrence  and  properties  of  the  nutrients. 
These  it  is  necessary  to  consider  in  order  to  a  proper  un- 
derstanding of  the  processes  of  digestion  and  assimilation. 
The  nutrients  are  divided  into  three  groups,  corresponding 
to  the  three  groups  of  substances  in  the  animal  body,  viz. : 
nitrogenous,  non-nitrogenous,  and  mineral  substances. 

§  2.  Nitrogenous  Nutrients. 

Protein. — The  predominant  nitrogenous  constituents 
of  plants  resemble  closely,  in   all  important  particulars. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


27 


the  albuminoids  of  the  animal  body,  and  have,  like  them, 
been  called  albuminoids  or  protein  bodies. 

The  name  protein  was  used  by  Mulder  to  designate  a 
supposed  substance  which  formed  the  basis  of  all  the 
albuminoids.  The  word  is  no  longer  used  in  this  sense,  but 
is  very  commonly  met  with  as  a  collective  term  for  all  the 
albuminoids,  and  we  shall  thus  use  it  in  the  present  work. 

The  vegetable  albuminoids  which  have  as  yet  been  in- 
vestigated may  be  divided  into  tliree  groups,  albumin^ 
casein^  2iW^  fibrin^  having  more  or  less  resemblance  to  the 
corresponding  groups  of  animal  albuminoids,  though  it  is 
doubtful  if  the  two  are  identical. 

Vegetable  Albumin  appears  to  occur  chiefly  in  the, 
young  and  growing  parts  of  plants,  while  in  the  older 
parts  it  is  converted  into  other  forms  of  protein.  It  i? 
contained,  dissolved  in  small  quantities,  in  the  sap  of  fresh 
plants,  and  coagulates  when  the  sap  is  heated. 

Vegetable  albumin  is  soluble  in  cold  water,  in  dilute  potash  solu- 
tion, and  in  dilute  acetic  acid ;  it  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  and  is  very 
similar  in  all  its  properties  to  animal  albumin.  Its  composition  varies 
somewhat  according  to  the  source  from  which  it  is  derived.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  extremes  of  variation  : 


Carbon . . . 
Hydrogen 
Nitrogen  . 
Oxygen  . . 
Sulphur.  . 


Vegetable  albumin. 
Per  cent. 


52.3-54.3 

7.1-  7.7 
15.5-17.6 
20.6-23.0 

0.8-  1.6 


The  composition  of  animal  albumin  is  not  far  from  the  average  for 
Tegetable  albumin,  but  the  identity  of  the  two  is,  at  best,  doubtful. 


28  MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Vegetable  Casein. — If  wheat  iloiu'  be  made  into  dough, 
and  the  dough  kneaded  in  a  stream  of  water,  the  starch  of 
the  flour  is  washed  out,  and  a  sticky  mass  remains^  known 
as  crude  wheat-ghiten. 

The  crude  ghiten  thus  obtained  is  a  mixture  of  at  least 
four  albuminoids,  and  contains,  besides,  some  starch  and 
fat. 

When  treated  with  dilute  (60  to  80  per  cent.)  alcohol 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  three  of  these  albiuninoids 
are  dissolved,  while  the  fourth,  called  gluten-casein,  re- 
mains behind,  together  with  various  impurities.  The 
same  or  a  very  similar  substance  is  also  contained  in  rye, 
barley,  and  perhaps  in  buckwheat,  and  in  the  "  oil  seeds ; " 
while  oats  contain  an  albuminoid  having  some  of  the  prop- 
erties of  gluten-casein  but  more  closely  resembling  the 
legumin  about  to  be  described. 

In  addition  to  gluten-casein,  two  other  bodies  belonging 
to  the  casein  group  have  been  described,  viz. :  tegicmin, 
the  chief  albuminoid  of  the  seeds  of  the  legumes  (peas, 
beans,  etc.),  and  conglutin,  contained  in  almonds  and  in 
maize  (?) 

The  properties  of  these  albuminoids,  and  in  particular  those  of  legu- 
mi?i,  resemble  very  closely  those  of  animal  casein.  Legumin  is  in- 
soluble in  water.  It  is,  however,  quite  soluble  in  water  containing 
small  quantities  of  basic  phosphates,  especially  of  potash,  and  hence 
warm  water  extracts  legumin  from  the  seeds  of  the  legumes,  since  the 
latter  contain  soluble  phosphates.  Such  a  solution  of  legumin  is  not 
coagulated  by  heat,  but  is  by  acids,  and  according  to  one  authority  by 
rennet.  Legumin  is  insoluble  in  either  strong  or  dilute  alcohol,  but 
very  readily  soluble  in  dilute  potash  solution,  and  somewhat  soluble  in 
dilute  acids.  The  reactions  of  gluten-casein,  as  well  as  those  of  con- 
glutin,  are  very  similar  to  those  of  legumin. 

The  composition  of  these  albimiinoids,  like  that  of  all 
others,  varies  more  or  less  accoi'ding  to  their  source  and 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


29 


mode  of  preparation,  owing  largely  to  the  great  difficulty 
of  obtaining  them  in  a  pm-e  state  and  in  part  perhaps, 
to  the  non-identity  of  substances  bearing  the  same  name 
but  derived  from  different  sources.  The  following  table 
shows  some  of  Ritthausen's  results.* 


Gluten-casein. 
Per  cent. 

Legumin  fbom 

CONGLUTIN  FBOM 

Oats. 
Per  cent. 

Peas. 
Per  cent. 

Beans. 
Per  cent. 

Maize. 
Per  cent. 

Sweet 
almonds. 
Per  cent. 

Carbon  

52.70-53.16 

6.95-  7.15 

16.70-17.21 

21.92-22.18 

0.93-  1.27 

51.63 
7.49 
17.45 
22.64 
0.79 

51.48 
7.02 
17.13 
23.97 
0.40 

51.48 

6.96 
14.76  (?) 
26.85 

0.45 

51.41 
7.19 
17.72 

■23.C8 

50.44 

Hydrogen 

Nitrogen 

6.85 
18.61 
23.67 

0.43 

Vegetable  Fibrin. — When  crude  wheat  gluten  is 
treated  with  alcohol  in  the  preparation  of  gluten-casein, 
as  above  described^  a  solution  is  obtained  from  which  an 
albuminoid  known  as  gluten-fibrin  may  be  prepared  as  a 
tenacious,  translucent  substance  of  a  brownish-yellow  color. 

It  is  insoluble  in  water  or  absolute  alcohol ;  soluble  in  dilute  alcohol, 
in  dilute  acids,  and  in  dilute  potash  solution.  When  heated,  it  is  con- 
verted into  an  insoluble  modification,  which  is  not  dissolved  by  dilute 
acids  or  alkalies.  The  same  or  a  similar  substance  is  contained  in  barley 
and  maize. 

The  corrvposition  of  vegetable  fibrin,  like  that  of  the 
other  albuminoids,  varies  more  or  less.  Kitthausen  ob- 
tained the  f ollowins:  results : 


*  Die  Eiweisskorper  der  Getreidearten,  etc. ,  1873,  and  Jahresber.  Agr. 
Chem.,  N.  F.,  I.,  168. 


30 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Carbon. . . 
Hydrogen 
Nitrogen. . 
Oxygen... 
Sulphur. . 


From  wheat. 
Per  cent. 


54.31 

7.18 

16.89 

20.61 

1.01 

100.00 


From  barley. 
Per  cent. 


54.55 

7.27 
15.70 

22.48 
100.00 


From  maize. 
Per  cent. 


54.69 

7,51 

16,33 

20,78 

0.69 

100.00 


Mueedin  and  Gliadin. — Besides  gluten-casein  and  glu- 
ten-fibrin, wheat  gluten  contains  two  other  albuminoids, 
viz. :  nnicedin,  and  gliadin  or  vegetable  glue. 

Mueedin,  when  freshly  prepared  and  containing  water,  is  a  yellowish- 
white,  slimy  substance,  somewhat  translucent  and  with  a  silky  lustre. 
It  is  soluble  in  dilute  alcohol,  but  insoluble  in  strong  alcohol,  which 
precipitates  it  from  its  solutions.  Its  behavior  to  water  is  peculiar.  It 
is  scarcely  soluble,  but  when  agitated  with  water,  can  be  suspended  in 
it,  forming  a  turbid,  slimy  fluid,  which,  on  long  standing,  deposits  the 
mueedin  unaltered.  The  same  results  are  obtained  if  the  water  is 
warmed  instead  of  stirred.  Continued  boiling  with  water  decomposes 
mueedin,  and  alters  most  of  it  into  an  insoluble  substance, 

Gliadin  very  closely  resembles  animal  glue  in  its  properties.  It  is 
soluble  in  both  weak  and  strong  alcohol,  in  alkalies,  and  in  acids.  In  cold 
water  it  swells  up  like  glue  ;  prolonged  boiling  with  water  decomposes  it. 

The  composition  of  mueedin  and  gliadin  obtained  from 
wheat  was  found  by  Eitthausen  to  be : 


Carbon , . . 
Hydrogen 
Nitrogen . 
Oxygen. .  „ 
Sul]>hur . . 


Mueedin — Per  cent. 


Gliadin — Per  cent. 


45.11 

52.67 

6.90 

7.10 

16,63 

18.01 

21.48 

21.37 

0.88 

0.85 

MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  31 

Mucedin  is  also  found  in  rye  and  barley,  and  gliadin  in 
oats. 

Other  Albuminoids. — It  will  not  have  escaped  notice 
that  in  the  above  paragraphs  we  have  coniined  om-selves 
chiefly  to  a  consideration  of  the  albuminoids  of  the  cereal 
grains  and  the  legumes. 

This  is  simply  because  these  are  the  only  vegetable  prod- 
ucts which  have  been  mvestigated  with  any  degree  of 
completeness.  Doubtless  other  feeding-stuffs  would  be 
found  to  contain  still  other  varieties  of  protein,  were  they 
investigated,  but  at  present  we  know  little  or  nothing  re- 
garding them. 

Comparative  Value  in  Nutrition. — While  the  vari- 
ous albuminoids  of  the  vegetable  world  vary  not  inconsid- 
erably in  their  composition,  especially  as  regards  carbon 
and  nitrogen,  they  still  show  such  strong  general  resem- 
blances, both  in  composition  and  properties,  to  each  other 
and  to  the  animal  albuminoids,  that  we  must  consider  them 
all  as  closely  related  bodies.  Indeed  they  seem  capable,  to 
a  certain  extent,  of  conversion  into  each  other  in  various 
ways. 

Whether  the  various  vegetable  albuminoids  are  equally 
valuable  as  nutrients,  are  assimilated  and  formed  into  part 
of  the  body  with  equal  ease,  we  are  unable  to  say,  owing 
to  the  entire  lack  of  experiments  on  the  subject.  It  is, 
perhaps,  questionable  if  they  are,  but  the  differences,  if 
they  exist,  are  probably  not  great,  and  for  the  present  we 
must  consider  them  all  as  equivalent,  so  far  as  they  are 
actually  digested. 

The  recent  experinients  of  Wildt  -  and  of  E.  v.  Wolff  f 
on  swine  seem  also  to  show  that  the  animal  albuminoids  con- 

♦  Landw.  Jahrbucher,  VI.,  177.  f  Ibid.,  VIII.,  223. 


32  MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

tained  in  dried  blood  and  flesli-meal  (the  residue  fi'om  tiie 
preparation  of  "Extract  of  meat,")  are  equivalent  in  nutri- 
tive effect  to  vegetable  albuminoids. 

It  is  possible  tliat  we  ought  to  regard  gliadin  as  forming 
an  exception  to  the  equivalence  of  the  albuminoids  on  ac- 
count of  its  great  likeness  to  animal  glue,  or  gelatin,  the 
latter  having  been  shown  by  Yoif^  to  be  incapable  of  per- 
forming all  the  functions  of  protein  in  the  food. 

Importance. — This  close  mutual  relation  and  easy  con- 
vertibility of  the  albuminoids  has  the  highest  significance 
for  animal  nutrition. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  most  important  solid  components 
of  the  animal  body  are  the  albuminoids  and  related  bodies. 
It  is  these  which  constitute  its  muscles,  tendons,  nerves, 
in  fact  all  its  working  machinery. 

I^ow,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  animal  organism  has  no 
power  to  originate  a  particle  of  these  substances. 

Its  sole  source  of  them  is,  in  the  herbivora  directly  and 
in  the  carnivora  indirectly,  the  albuminoids  of  the  plant. 
These,  by  virtue  of  their  great  similarity  to  the  animal  al- 
buminoids, are  readily  altered  into  them  and  become  part 
of  the  body.  They  are  hence  indispensable  elements  of 
any  food,  and  likewise  the  most  important,  smce,  while 
they  can,  to  a  certain  extent,  take  the  place  of  the  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients,  none  of  the  latter  can  possibly  re- 
place the  albuminoids;  and  they  are  of  all  the  greater 
importance  because,  while  the  animal  body  is,  to  so  large 
an  extent,  composed  of  them,  they  are  found  in  compara- 
tively small  quantity  in  most  parts  of  plants. 

Evidently,  then,  the  proportion  of  albuminoids  which  a 
fodder  contains  is  an  important  element  in  determining  its 

*  Zeitschrif  t  f .  Biologie,  VIII.,  297. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  33 

value  ;  and  those  fodders  which  contain  them  in  the  largest 
quantity  are,  other  things  being  equal,  the  most  valuable, 
since  the  albuminoids  are  the  most  expensive  ingredients 
to  produce. 

Occurrence  in  Plants. — This  is  not  the  place  for  a 
discussion  of  the  composition  of  the  various  fodders,  but  a 
few  general  considerations  regarding  the  distribution  of 
the  albuminoids  in  the  plant  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

In  the  plant,  as  in  the  animal,  life  manifests  itself  chiefly 
through  the  albuminoids,  and  consequently  all  young  and 
growing  plants  and  parts  of  plants  contain  them  abundantly, 
while  in  the  older  portions,  which  have  for  the  most  part 
finished  their  growth,  they  are  present  in  much  smaller 
proportion,  both  owing  to  the  increase  of  other  substances, 
chiefly  woody-flbre,  and  an  actual  transfer  (translocation)  of 
albmninoids  to  other  parts  of  the  plant.  This  is  one  reason 
of  the  greater  nulTitive  value  of  young  grass  and  green 
fodder  in  general,  of  hay  cut  while  still  young,  etc.  (See, 
however,  page  299.) 

In  mature  plants  the  albuminoids  tend  to  accumulate  in 
the  seeds.  Thus  the  grains,  beans,  peas,  etc.,  contain  large 
quantities  of  albuminoids  and  owe  to  them,  in  a  large  meas- 
ure, their  value  as  fodder,  while  the  plants  on  which  they 
grow,  if  allowed  to  stand  till  the  seed  is  ripe,  become  cor- 
respondingly impoverished  in  these  compounds. 

In  the  case  of  the  cereals,  it  is  the  seeds  which  we  desire, 
and  hence  we  allow  the  plant  to  mature. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  case  of  the  grasses,  belonging 
to  the  same  natural  family  {(jraimnecB)^  we  use  the  whole 
plant  as  fodder,  and  hence  cut  it  before  the  seed  matures, 
because,  although  the  whole  amount  of  albuminoids  is  not 
decreased  in  ripening,  it  is  largely  stored  up  in  the  seeds, 
and  these  are  mostly  lost  in  the  processes  of  curing,  while 
3* 


34  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

such  as  are  retained,  owing  to  tlieir  small  size,  escape  mas- 
tication and  are  not  digested. 

The  proportion  of  albuminoids  in  the  same  species  of 
plants  and  in  the  same  parts  of  the  plant  differs  according 
to  the  quality  of  the  soil  on  which  it  is  grown,  the  manur- 
ing, the  weather,  and  other  circumstances,  so  that  it  is  only 
by  means  of  numerous  analyses  that  the  average  composi- 
tion of  any  fodder  can  be  ascertained.  A  discussion  of 
these  points  and  of  the  results  of  analyses  of  the  more  im- 
portant fodders  will  be  found  in  Pait  II. 

Other  Nitrogenous  Constituents  of  Plants. — Vari- 
ous nitrogenous  substances  not  belonging  to  the  albumi- 
noid group  have  been  found  in  plants.  For  our  present 
purpose,  we  may  divide  them  into  f om-  classes : 

1.  Nitrates^  nitrites^  and  ammonia  salts; 

2.  Pej)tones ; 

3.  Alkaloids; 

4.  Amines,  amides,  and  amido-adds. 

Nitrates,  Nitrites,  and  Ammonia  Salts. — These  sub- 
stances usually  occur  very  sparingly  in  plants,  though  beets, 
and  probably  other  root  crops,  contain  considerable  quan- 
tities of  them,  and  maize  also  frequently  contains  a  not  in- 
considerable amount  of  nitrates.  These  substances,  how- 
ever, need  hardly  be  taken  into  accomit  here,  since  tliey 
have  no  nutritive  value. 

Peptones. — Recently,  v.  Gorup-Besanez  has  shown  (^^?*. 
J)eut.  Chem.  Ges.,  1874,  p.  1478)  that  the  seeds  of  the  vetch 
contain  a  ferment  capable  of  converting  starch  into  sugar 
and  albuminoids  into  peptones,*  and  a  similar  substance  has 
since  been  found  in  other  seeds.     It  is  highly  probable  that, 

♦  See  p.  59. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  S5 

during  germination,  these  ferments  act  on  tlie  albuminoids 
of  the  seeds,  converting  them  into  peptones  and  so  facilitat- 
ing their  translocation  into  the  young  plant.  How  exten- 
sively or  in  what  amount  peptones  are  to  be  found  in  plants, 
we  have  no  certain  knowledge. 

Alkaloids. — The  term  alkaloid  (alkali-like)  is  applied 
to  a  class  of  organic  bodies  possessing  more  or  less  marked 
alkaline  characters,  a  bitter  taste,  and  poisonous  or  nar- 
cotic qualities.  Morphine,  strychnine,  and  nicotine,  are 
common  examples.  These  bodies,  though  quite  widely 
distributed  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  occur  in  few  of 
our  ordinary  fodder  plants,  the  principal  one  being  the 
lupine.  Siewert  {Jahresher,  f.  Agr.  Chem.^  13-15,  II.  6) 
found  in  the  seeds  of  the  yeUow  lupine  0.6  per  cent,  of 
alkaloids,  and  in  those  of  the  blue  lupine  0.63  per  cent., 
and  H.  Schulze  {Lomdw,  Jahrbuche7\  YIII.,  37)  obtained 
only  0.39  per  cent. 

Amines,  Amides,  and  Amido-acids. — By  these  names 
the  chemist  understands  certain  nitrogenous  organic  sub- 
stances, having  a  more  or  less  close  chemical  resemblance 
to  ammonia.  When  solid,  they  are  generally  crystalline 
and  soluble  in  water,  and  pass  easily  through  a  moist 
membrane  by  the  process  of  liquid  diffusion,  differing  m 
these  respects  from  the  albuminoids,  many  of  which  are 
slightly  or  not  at  all  soluble  in  water,  and  all  of  which  are 
non-crystalline,  and  diffuse  with  extreme  slowness.  Most 
of  them,  when  boiled  with  dilute  acids  or  alkalies,  give  off 
their  nitrogen,  wholly  or  in  part,  as  ammonia. 

The  first  one  to  be  discovered  was  asparagin  (amido- 
succinamic  acid)  by  Yauquelin  and  Eobinet  in  1805,  in 
asparagus  shoots.  The  same  body  has  since  been  found 
in  a  large  number  of  plants  or  parts  of  plants,  and  appears 
to  be  quite  widely  distributed  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 


36  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Several  other  substances  belonging  to  the  same  class 
have  also  been  isolated.  Scheibler  *  discovered  betain 
(tri-m ethyl  gljcocoll)  in  mangolds,  v.  Gorup  -  Besanez  f 
found  leucin  in  germinating  vetches,  Schulze  and  Urich  if 
have  sho^\^l  that  glutamin  is  contained  m  mangolds,  and 
the  same  body,  along  with  some  tyrosin,  was  found  by 
Schulze  and  Barbieri  §  in  germinating  squash  seeds,  and  it 
is  highly  probable  that  other  similar  bodies  will  yet  be 
isolated. 

Functions  in  the  Plant. — The  investigations  of  Pfeffer  || 
on  asparagin  showed  that  this  body  was  abundantly  formed, 
during  the  germination  of  leguminous  plants,  by  the  split- 
ting up  of  the  protein  of  the  seed,  and,  after  being  dissolved 
in  the  water  always  present  and  thus  transferred  to  the 
young  plant,  was  reconverted  into  protein.  That  is,  it 
served,  by  virtue  of  its  solubility  and  diffusibility,  to  render 
available  to  the  plant  the  insoluble  albuminoids  of  the 
seed.  Later  researches  by  E.  Schulze,  ^  and  especially  by 
Borodin,  ^^  seem,  however,  to  show  that  the  formation  of 
asparagin  is  not  limited  to  germination,  but  that  the  trans- 
fer of  protein  from  one  part  of  the  plant  to  another 
which  is  continually  taking  place  during  growth  is  also 
effected  by  the  agency  of  this  and  other  amides. 

Borodin  also  believes  that  asparagin  (and  other  like 
bodies  ?)  is  being  continually  produced  in  the  living  plant. 
/Vccording  to  him,  the  respiration  of  the  plant  takes  place 


♦  Zeitschrift  fiir  Riibenzucker- Industrie,  XVI.,  229. 

f  Ber.  Deut.  Chem.  Ges-.VIL,  147. 

IVersuchs-Stationen,  XX.,  193. 

§  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VI.,  681. 

I  Jahrbiiclier  fiir  Wiss.  Botanik,  VIIL,  530. 

1  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VII. ,  411. 

**  Botanische  Zeitung,  Jahrg.  86,  Nr,  51  and  52. 


~  MAlSrUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  37 

at  the  expense  of  the  albuminoids  of  the  protoplasm,  which 
are  decomposed  with  formation  of  asparagin.  Under  nor- 
mal conditions,  the  latter  is  regenerated  to  protein,  but 
under  certain  circumstances  it  may  accumulate  in  the 
plant. 

According  to  Schulze,  various  amides  are  formed  in  this 
process,  some  of  which  are  rapidly  regenerated,  while 
others  are  utilized  but  slowly,  and  hence  accumulate  in 
comparatively  large  quantities. 

This  view  is  supported  by  the  results  of  Kellner,*  who 
found  a  considerable  amount  of  amides  in  a  large  number 
of  growing  plants.  His  experiments  were  made  chiefly  on 
fodder  plants,  in  some  of  which  over  30  per  cent,  of  the 
total  nitrogen  was  found  to  exist  in  amide  form,  but  con- 
siderable quantities  of  these  bodies  were  also  found  in  the 
green  parts  of  several  species  of  trees. 

Furthermore,  Schulze  and  Urichf  have  shown  that 
beets,  and,  presumably,  other  roots,  contain  large  quanti- 
ties of  amides,  and  that  in  the  second  year's  growth  they 
pass  into  the  plant  and  serve  as  a  source  of  protein. 

Amides  have  also  been  f  oimd  in  considerable  amounts  in 
potatoes,  where  they  doubtless  perform  a  similar  function. 

It  is  but  recently  that  investigation  into  the  proportion 
of  amides  in  fodder-plants  has  been  begun,  and  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  extent  of  their  occurrence  is  still  quite  limited. 
In  view  of  the  importance  of  the  matter,  it  is  earnestly  to 
be  desired  that  it  should  receive  a  speedy  and  thorough  in- 
vestigation, extending  at  least  so  far  as  to  determine  the 
average  proportion  of  albuminoids  and  non-albuminoids 
in  our  common  feeding-stuffs. 


*  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VIII.,  I.  Supplement,  243. 
f  Versuchs-Stationen,  XX.,  214. 


38  MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 


?  3.    NON-NlTKOaENOUS   NUTRIE^TS. 

Carbhydrates. — The  chief  substances  composing  this 
group  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  are  cellulose,  or  %ooody- 
fl)re ;  starch',  dextrine',  cane,  (/''^J>^^  riiilk,  and  fruit 
sugar  ;  and  the  gums.  "  These  bodies,  especially  cellulose 
and  starch,  form  by  far  the  larger  share  of  all  the  dry  matter 
of  vegetation,  and  most  of  them  are  distributed  through 
all  parts  of  plants."  They  owe  their  name  to  the  fact 
that  they  all  contain,  besides  carbon,  the  elements  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  in  the  proportions  in  which  the  latter  exist  in 
water.  This  similarity  of  composition  and  their  ready 
transformation  into  each  other,  both  artificially  and  in  the 
plant,  show  that  they  are  nearly  related  chemically. 

Cellulose. — All  plants  consist  of  cells  or  microscopic 
closed  sacks  or  tubes  adhering  together.  The  walls  of 
these  cells  are  composed  of  cellulose,  and  hence  the  latter 
is  a  constituent  of  all  vegetable  tissue,  constituting,  as  it 
were,  its  frame- work.  In  those  parts  of  the  plant  where 
greater  strength  is  needed,  the  originally  thin  walls  of  the 
cells  increase  greatly  in  thickness,  and  often  become  im- 
pregnated with  a  harder  substance  or  substances  known  as 
lignin,  making  them  still  tougher.  This  is  especially  the 
case  with  the  stems.  Foliage,  and  the  husks,  etc.,  of  fruits, 
also  contain  much  cellulose. 

Projperties. — Pure  cellulose  is  an  odorlesc  and  tasteless 
solid,  varying  somewhat  in  appearance,  according  to  its 
source,  but  usually  white  in  color,  and  with  a  silky  or 
horny  lustre.  Cotton,  flax,  and  hemp,  and  cloth  and  unsized 
paper  made  from  them  are  examples  of  nearly  pure  cellu- 

se. 

It  is  distinguished  from  the  other  bodies  of  this  group 


3IA]SrUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  39 

by  its  slight  solubility ;  neither  dilute  acids  nor  alkalies, 
water,  or  any  of  the  ordinary  solvents,  dissolve  it.  Hence, 
it  may  be  obtained  by  acting  on  vegetable  matter  with 
various  solvents  till  all  other  substances  are  removed. 

If  cellulose  be  exposed  for  some  time  to  the  action  of 
strong  oil-of -vitriol,  or  be  boiled  for  some  hours  witli  dilute 
acids  or  alkalies,  it  is  converted  first  into  dextrine  and  then 
into  grape-sugar.  If  treated  with  iodine  and  then  with 
strong  sulphuric  acid,  it  assumes  a  deep-blue  color.  This 
reaction  serves  to  identify  cellulose  under  the  microscope. 

CoiTvposition. — Pure  cellulose  has  exactly  the  same  com- 
position as  starch,  viz. : 

Carbon 44.44  per  cent. 

Hydrogen 6.17        " 

Oxygen 49.39        ** 

100.00 

As  intimated  above,  however,  it  is  seldom  found  pure, 
except  in  the  young  and  tender  parts  of  plants,  but  is 
usually  more  or  less  impregnated  with  substances  to  which 
the  collective  name  of  lignin  has  been  given,  and  the  follow- 
ing composition  assigned : 

Carbon 55.3  percent. 

Hydrogen „....,...     5.8        *' 

Oxygen 38.9        " 

100.0 

This  is,  however,  simply  the  inferred  composition  of 
what  is  left  after  cellulose  has  been  removed,  and  not  the 
result  of  direct  analysis.  But  it  is  certain  that  lignin 
(using  the  name  in  a  collective  sense)  is  richer  in  carbon 
than  cellulose,  and  as  a  membrane  becomes  impregnated 
with  the  former,  its  percentage  of  that  element  increases. 


40  MANUAL  OF   CATTLE- FEEDING. 

Digestibility. — Cellulose  was  long  thought  to  be  indiges- 
tible. 

Haubner  *  was  the  first  to  show  that  this  belief  was  er^ 
roneous,  and  that  the  ruminants  were  capable  of  digesting 
large  quantities  of  this  substance.  His  results  have  since 
been  verified  in  innumerable  digestion  experiments,  which 
have  shown  that  cellulose  forms  an  important  ingredient 
in  the  fodder,  not  onlj  of  rmninants,  but  of  all  om-  herbi- 
vorous domestic  animals. 

The  proportion  of  cellulose  which  is  digested  varies  very 
considerably  according  to  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  fodder 
and  the  species  of  animal  to  which  it  is  fed. 

Of  the  cellulose  of  the  ordinary  coarse  fodders,  fi'om 
about  30  to  70  per  cent,  is  digested  by  ruminants,  while  the 
cellulose  of  the  cereal  grains  seems  much  less  digestible. 
In  general,  the  younger  and  more  tender  a  feeding-stuff  is, 
the  greater  is  the  amount  of  cellulose  which  is  digested, 
while  in  old  and  woody  plants,  in  which  much  lignin  is 
formed,  its  digestibility  is  considerably  less.  The  lignin 
itself  appears  to  be  entirely  indigestible. 

Determination. — The  amount  of  cellulose  in  a  fodder 
is  usually  determined  by  successively  boiling  the  finely 
divided  material  with  dilute  acid  and  dihite  alkali,  and 
washing  with  alcohol  and  ether.  These  solvents  remove 
the  other  constituents  of  the  fodder  and  leave  the  (impure) 
cellulose  behind.  The  residue,  after  deduction  of  the 
small  quantities  of  ash  and  albuminoids  which  it  still  con- 
tains, is  designated  as  crude  fibre. 

It  is  by  no  means  pure  cellulose,  but  is  chiefly  a  mixture 
of  the  latter  with  lignin.     The  crude  fibre  obtained  from 


*  Amts-  und  Anzeigeblatt  f .    d.    landw.   Vereine  des  Konigreichs 
Sachsen,  1854,  Nr.  6 ;  also,  Zeitschr.  f.  D.  Landw.  1855,  177. 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  41 

different  fodders  according  to  tliis  method  has  a  varying 
appearance  and  composition ;  the  crude  fibre,  e.  g.,  pre- 
pared  from  hay  and  straw,  contains  45  to  46  per  cent,  of 
carbon,  while  that  fi'om  clover  hay  and  the  straw  of  the 
legumes  contains  48  to  49  per  cent,  of  the  same  element ; 
that  is,  the  latter  is  richer  in  lignin  than  the  former. 

It  is  evident  from  these  considerations  that  the  crude 
fibre  is  not  a  definite  body,  but  a  variable  mixture  of  several 
substances.  The  method  just  described  is,  indeed,  simply 
a  conventional  one,  agreed  on  by  chemists  for  lack  of  a 
better,  and  the  term  crude  fibre  simply  means  the  residue 
obtained  by  treating  the  fodder  in  the  prescribed  manner. 

The  results,  especially  when  combined  with  digestion  ex- 
periments, are  of  great  value,  but  it  is  still  much  to  be  re- 
gretted that  no  more  accurate  method  has  yet  been  devised. 

Starch. — Next  to  water  and  cellulose,  starch  is  the  most 
abundant  substance  in  the  vegetable  world,  being  found 
in  all  plants  and  in  almost  all  parts  of  them.  It  appears 
to  be  first  formed  in  the  gi-een  leaves,  as  the  product  of 
the  reduction  of  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air  under  the  in- 
fluence of  sunlight,  and  from  thence  to  be  distributed,  by 
a  process  of  solution  and  redeposition,  to  all  the  organs  of 
the  plant.  It  is  found  in  large  quantity  in  the  seeds  of  the 
cereals,  wheat,  e.  g.^  containing  61  to  76  per  cent,  of  it  in 
the  dry  substance,  and  constitutes  a  large  proportion  of  the 
dry  matter  of  potatoes  and  other  tubers.* 

Properties. — Pure  starch  is  an  odorless  and  tasteless 
white  powder,  which,  when  examined  under  the  micro- 
scope, is  seen  to  consist  of  minute  organized  grains.  These 
starch  grains  are  formed,  in  the  plant  by  a  process  of 

*  The  artichoke  and  some  other  tubers  contain,  instead  of  starch,  a 
body  closely  resembling  it,  called  inulin.  Inulin  exists  in  plants  both 
as  a  liquid  and  in  grains.     It  gives  no  coloration  with  iodine. 


42  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

growth,  and  vary  in  size  and  appearance  according  to  the 
species  of  plant  which  produces  them,  so  tliat  starch  from 
different  som-ces  can  be  readily  distinguished. 

They  are  composed  of  two  substances — a  skeleton  of  a 
material  resembling  cellulqse  and  called  starch-cellulose^  and 
a  more  soluble  substance  called  granuloses  which  constitutes 
by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  grains.  A  characteristic 
property  of  starch  is  that,  when  brought  in  contact  with  a 
minute  quantity  of  iodine  in  solution,  it  assumes  a  beauti- 
f  ul  blue  color.  This  property  seems  to  reside  in  the  granu- 
lose,  since,  if  this  be  removed  by  solvents,  the  residue 
gives  no  longer  a  blue  but  a  yellow  color  with  iodine,  like 
ordinary  cellulose. 

Starch  is  insoluble  in  cold  water  so  long  as  the  grains 
remain  whole.  If  they  are  crushed  and  ground  very  fine 
with  water,  a  minute  quantity  is  dissolved. 

Wlien  heated  with  water  nearly  to  boiling,  the  grains  swell 
and  burst,  absorbing  water  and  forming  a  jelly-like  mass, 
but  very  little  starch  is  really  dissolved  by  this  treatment. 

Starch,  like  cellulose,  may  be  converted  into  dextrine  and 
grape-sugar  by  boiling  with  acids  or  alkalies,  but  much 
more  readily.  The  same  transformation  may  be  effected 
by  dry  heat,  and  by  the  action  of  diastase,"^  the  ferment 
of  malt,  as  in  the  preparation  of  beer  and  spirits. 

It  is  also  rapidly  dissolved  and  converted  into  sugar  by 
the  action  of  the  saliva  of  the  mouth  and  by  the  pancre- 
atic juice,  and  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  most  important  ol 
the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients,  owing  to  its  abimdance  and 
the  comparative  ease  and  completeness  with  which  it  is 
digested. 

*  Diastase  produces  a  peculiar  kind  of  sugar  called  maltose^  instead 
of  grape-Bugar. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  43 

The  composition  of  dry  starch  is  the  same  as  that  of 
cellulose,  viz. : 

Carbon 44.44 

Hydrogen 6.17 

Oxygen , 49.39 

100.00 

In  the  air-dry  state  it  contains  12  to  20  per  cent,  of 
water. 

Dextrine  seldom  has  Leen  found  in  plants,  at  least  in 
any  considerable  quantity,  and  is  chiefly  interesting  in  this 
connection  on  account  of  its  relations  to  starch  and  sug-ar. 

It  is  prepared  commercially  in  large  quantities,  under 
the  name  of  British  gum,  by  the  action  of  dry  heat  on 
starch.  It  is  formed  in  the  same  way  from  starch  during 
the  baking  of  bread,  and  is  an  important  ingredient  of 
food  prepared  by  cooking  materials  containing  starch.  It 
appears  to  be  entirely  digestible. 

The  Sugars. — There  are  four  principal  kinds  of  sugar, 
viz. :  cane-sugar^  obtained  from  the  juice  of  the  sugar-cane, 
the  sugar-beet,  sugar-maple,  and  other  plants,  and  forming 
the  ordinary  sugar  of  commerce ;  milk-sugar^  occurring  in 
the  milk  of  mammalia  ;  and  grape-sugar  and  fruit-sugar, 
usually  occurring  together  in  the  juices  of  plants  and  sweet 
fruits  and  in  honey.  Grape-sugar  is  also  known  as. glucose 
and  dextrose,  and  fruit-sugar  as  levulose. 

These  sugars  have  the  following  composition  : 


Carbon. 
Per  cent. 

Hydrogen. 
Per  cent. 

Oxygen. 
Per  cent. 

Cane-sugar      ) 

Milk-sugar      i" 

Grape-sugar    \ 
Fruit-sugar     J 

43.11 
40.00 

6.43 
6.67 

51.46 
53.33 

44  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

They  all  resemble,  in  a  general  way,  cane-sngar  in  tlieii 
properties,  though  they  are  by  no  means  identical. 

For  our  present  purpose,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  they 
are  all  readily  soluble  in  water,  and  hence  easily  digestible. 
They  are  important  nutrients,  being  formed  in  large  quan- 
tities, in  digestion,  from  other  carbhydrates,  though  in  the 
ordinary  fodders  they  occur  in  only  small  quantity. 

The  Gums. — Another  group  of  substances  of  consider- 
able importance  is  the  gums,  of  which  gum-arabic  may 
be  taken  as  a  representative. 

They  are  found  in  small  proportions  in  various  vegeta- 
ble products,  and  in  considerable  quantity  in  the  ordinary 
bread  grains.  They  appear  to  be  digestible  by  domestic 
animals,  but  of  their  value  as  nutrients  w^e  know  as  yet 
but  little.  Probably,  however,  they  are  practically  about 
equivalent  to  starch. 

Mutual  Relations  of  the  Carbhydrates. — The  close 
relationship  between  the  several  members  of  this  group  of 
substances  which  is  indicated  by  their  analogous  composi- 
tion is  shown  still  more  plamly  both  by  their  ready  con- 
version one  into  another,  in  nature  and  in  the  laboratory, 
and  by  their  behavior  to  various  reagents. 

In  the  plant,  starch  seems  to  be  the  first  formed,  and 
from  it  all  the  other  carbhydrates  are  produced,  while 
these  may  be  converted  back  again  into  starch. 

In  germination,  the  starch  of  the  seed  is  converted  into 
dextrine  and  sugar,  which  are  carried  in  solution  to  the 
young  plant,  there  to  form  cellulose  or  be  reconverted  into 
starch.  In  older  plants,  cellulose  may  be  dissolved  or  con- 
verted into  gum  or  vegetable  mucilage. 

In  the  laboratory,  all  the  various  carbhydrates  are  finally 
converted  by  heat  or  by  boiling  with  acids  or  alkalies,  first 
into  dextrine  and  then  into  some  form  of  sugar. 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  45 

The  close  relationship  between  starch  and  cellulose  is 
also  shown  by  their  behavior  toward  iodine.  As  we  have 
seen,  starch  is  colored  blue  by  this  reagent,  while  cellulose 
requires  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid  (or  one  of  several 
other  substances)  to  produce  the  blue  color. 

It  is  only  the  granulose  of  starch,  however,  which  gives 
a  blue  with  iodine,  while  the  starch-cellulose  behaves  like 
ordinary  cellulose,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  J.  Ktilin  "^  has 
shown  that  the  cotyledons  of  the  flax-seed  contain  a  form 
of  cellulose  which  is  colored  blue  by  iodine  alone. 

Indeed,  the  most  recent  investigations  seem  to  show 
that  there  is  a  numerous  series  of  carbhydrates,  varying 
from  the  most  insoluble  and  resistent  to  the  most  soluble 
and  easily  attacked  forms,  and  capable  of  mutual  intercon- 
version  in  the  plant  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  out  of  it. 

The  Pectin  Substances. — This  group  includes  a  nmn- 
ber  of  bodies  of  rather  uncertain  composition,  which  are 
the  characteristic  ingredients  of  fi-uit-jellies.  They  are 
found  in  ripe  fi'uits,  and,  together  with  sugar,  constitute 
the  larger  part  of  the  non-nitrogenous  organic  matter  of 
the  common  root  crops.  Uncooked  fruits  and  roots  are 
supposed  to  contain  a  body  caUed  pectose,  which,  on  boil- 
ing with  water  or  exposure  to  heat,  is  converted  into 
pectin,  which  is  soft  and  soluble  in  water.  It  is  this 
change  which  takes  place  in  the  cooking  of  fruit. 

By  further  heating,  the  pectin  is  converted  into  pectic 
and  pectosic  acids.  These  substances  are  insoluble  in  cold 
water,  and  constitute  the  essential  part  of  fruit-jelly.  Pec- 
tosic acid  is  soluble  in  boiling  water,  and  hence  most  jel- 
lies become  liquid  on  heating ;  on  cooling,  its  solution  gela- 
tinizes again.    Pectic  acid  is  insoluble,  even  in  boiling  water. 


*  Emahrung  des  Rindviehes,  6th  ed. ,  p.  49. 


46  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

By  long-continued  boiling,  all  these  bodies  are  converted 
into  metapectic  acid,  which  is  quite  soluble  and  has  a  sour 
taste. 

All  these  bodies  are  digestible,  and  are  not  unimportant 
as  nutrients.  They  probably  play  much  the  same  part  in 
nutrition  as  the  carbhydrates. 

The  Fats. — Composition. — The  fats  found  in  plants 
have  essentially  the  same  composition  as  that  possessed  by 
those  occurring  in  the  animal  body,  and  already  noted  on 
page  12,  viz.,  on  an  average : 

Carbon , 76.5  per  cent. 

Hydrogen 12.0        " 

Oxygen 11.5        " 

100.0 

It  will  be  noticed  that  these  nutrients  differ  from  those 
hitherto  considered  in  containing  a  much  larger  proportion 
of  carbon  and  a  much  smaller  one  of  oxygen.  They  con- 
sequently require  much  more  oxygen  for  their  complete 
combustion  and  give  out  about  two  and  one-half  times  as 
much  heat  in  burning  as  the  carbhydrates,  a  fact  of  great 
importance  in  connection  wdth  the  production  of  animal 
heat,  and  which  will  be  treated  of  more  fully  in  a  subse- 
quent chapter. 

Occurrence. — Fat  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  almost 
all  plants. 

In  roots  we  find  0.1  to  0.2  per  cent. ;  in  hay  and  straw, 
1.0  to  3.0  per  cent. ;  in  the  cereal  grains,  1.5  to  3.0  per 
cent.,  except  in  oats,  which  contain  as  much  as  6  per 
cent. ;  and  in  maize  about  4  to  9  per  cent.  It  is  especial- 
ly, however,  in  the  seeds  of  certain  plants  that  fat  or  oil 
occurs. 

The  seeds  of  flax,  hemp,  colza,  cotton,  and  nmnerous 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  47 

otvier  plants,  contain  from  10  to  40  per  cent,  of  oil,  accom- 
panied  generally  by  a  considerable  quantity  of  protein. 

The  oil  forms  an  article  of  commerce,  and  is  commonly 
obtained  by  simply  pressing  the  seeds. 

By  this  process,  however,  it  is  impossible  to  separate  all 
the  fat,  and  in  the  residue  of  the  manufacture — oil  cake, 
rape  cake,  cotton-seed  cake,  etc. — there  is  left  a  consider- 
able amount  (8  to  12  per  cent.)  of  oil,  together  with  nearly 
all  the  albuminoids,  and  hence,  owing  to  the  importance  of 
both  classes  of  nutrients,  these  residues  constitute  most 
valuable  fodder  materials. 

Sometimes  the  oil  is  extracted  by  means  of  solution  in 
bisulphide  of  carbon  instead  of  by  pressing.  In  this  case 
the  residue  is  valuable  chiefly  on  account  of  its  albuminoids, 
the  fat  content  being  reduced  to  from  2  to  4  per  cent. 

Value. — In  the  ordinary  fodder  of  our  domestic  animals 
fat  plays  a  rather  subordinate  part,  but  in  rapid  fattening  it 
is  a  most  important  aid,  though,  as  we  shall  see,  it  is  by 
no  means  the  sole  source  of  fat  to  the  animal  body.  In 
addition  to  its  direct  nutritive  effect,  it  also  aids  in  the 
digestion  and  resorption  of  the  important  albuminoids. 

I  4.  Inorganic  Nutrients. 

These  comprise  the  substances  found  in  the  ashes  of 
plants — the  so-called  inorganic  or  mineral  constituents. 
The  need  of  these  in  the  animal  organism  and  their  func- 
tions, so  far  as  known,  have  been  already  sufficiently 
spoken  of  in  Chapter  I.  In  all  ordinary  cases  a  ration 
which  contains  sufficient  organic  nutrients  will  also  contain 
an  abundance  of  the  inorganic,  so  that  commonly  no  special 
consideration  of  the  quantity  of  the  latter  is  necessary,  with 
the  exception  of  common  salt,  which,  for  reasons  already 


48  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

given,  is  needed  in  larger  amoimts  than  those  contained  in 
most  fodders. 

Sucli  being  the  case  it  is  not  necessary,  for  the  purposes 
of  the  present  work,  to  do  more  than  mention  these  sub- 
stances. 

g  5.  Fodder  Analysis. 

In  the  preceding  sections  we  have  mdicated  briefly  the 
occurrence  and  properties  of  the  most  important  nutrients. 

It  only  remains  to  describe,  in  a  general  way,  the  usual 
methods  of  determining  the  amount  of  these  present  in 
any  fodder. 

In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  it  is  impossible, 
even  were  it  necessary,  to  separate  and  determine  all  the 
multitudinous  substances  which  may  occur  in  a  fodder,  and 
we  must  content  ourselves  with  distinguishing  the  several 
groups  of  nutrients. 

Albuminoids. — The  amomit  of  albuminoids  in  a  fodder 
has  generally  been  foimd  by  multiplying  its  content  of 
nitrogen  by  6.25,  it  being  assumed,  first,  that  all  the  all:)u- 
minoids  contain  16  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  and,  second,  that 
no  other  nitrogenous  substances  are  present. 

Neither  of  these  assumptions  being,  as  we  have  seen, 
strictly  true,  it  follows  that  the  result  can  only  be  approxi- 
mate, and  in  view  of  this  fact  it  is  designated  as  crude 
protein. 

Of  the  two  sources  of  error  arising  under  the  above  as- 
sumptions, the  second  is  the  more  serious.  It  is  only  within 
a  very  short  time  that  feeding-stuffs  have  begun  to  be  ex- 
amined for  amides,  but  the  results  already  obtained  show 
that  these  bodies  are  to  be  found  far  more  extensively,  and 
in  greater  quantity,  in  feeding-stuffs  than  was  before  sus- 
pected.    This   is  especially  the  case  with   those  fodders 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  49 

which,  like  hay,  and  coarse  fodders  in  general,  are  cut 
when  still  immature,  and  with  roots;  while  the  grains 
appear  to  contain  practically  all  their  nitrogen  in  the  form 
of  protein. 

In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  a  simple  determi- 
nation of  the  total  nitrogen  of  a  fodder  is  not  sufficient, 
but  either  the  amide-nitrogen  must  be  determined  or  the 
protein  nnist  be  separated  from  the  other  nitrogenous 
matters,  by  some  one  of  the  numerous  methods  which  have 
been  proposed,  and  a  separate  estimation  of  its  nitrogen 
made. 

The  error  arising  from  the  somewhat  variable  compo- 
sition of  •  the  numerous  vegetable  albuminoids  we  have, 
unfortunately,  no  means  of  correcting.  In  the  present 
state  of  ouik  knowledge,  it  is  impossible  to  fix  upon 
separate  factors,  either  for  the  several  albuminoids  or  for 
different  classes  of  feeding-stuffs,  since  the  same  albumin- 
oid may  vary  considerably  in  composition  according  to  its 
source  or  mode  of  preparation,  and  since  the  proportions 
in  which  these  albuminoids  are  contained  in  the  same 
vegetable  product  also  vary.  Moreover,  we  have  no  knowl- 
edge whatever  regarding  the  composition  of  the  albumin- 
oids of  an  important  class  of  feeding-stuffs,  the  so-called 
coarse  fodders. 

For  the  present  we  are  obliged  to  continue  the  use  of 
the  conventional  factor  6.25,  bearing  always  in  mind  that 
it  is  but  an  approximation  to  the  truth,  though  probably 
in  most  cases  a  tolerably  close  approximation. 

Amides. — For  the  determination  of  amides  Sachsse's 
method  is  generally  used.  The  details  of  the  method  are 
too  technical  to  find  a  place  here ;  a  description  of  the  two 
processes  proposed  by  Sachsse  may  be  found  in  his  book, 
'-''Die  Chemie  und  Physiologie  derFarlstoffe,  Kohlehydrate 


50  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

und  Protelnsuhstanzeii^''  Leipzig,  1ST7,  pp.  256  and  258, 
and  a  combination  of  the  two  methods,  as  proposed  by 
E.  Schulze,  in  '^  Die  Landwirthschafilichen  Yei'suchsSta- 
tionen^  XX.,  117. 

Cellulose,  as  ah-eady  stated  (page  40),  is  determined  by 
removing  other  substances,  so  far  as  possible,  by  boiling  with 
dilute  acid  and  alkali,  washing  with  alcohol  and  ether,  and 
deducting  from  the  weight  of  the  residue  the  ash  and 
albuminoids  which  it  still  contains.  The  result  gives  the 
amount  of  crude  fibre. 

Fat  is  determined  by  dissolving  it  out  of  the  dried  fod- 
der by  extraction  with  renewed  quantities  of  common  (dry) 
ether,  evaporating  off  the  ether  fi-om  the  resulting  solution, 
and  weighing  the  fat  remaining  after  careful  drying  at 
100°  C.  ^ 

The  ether  extract  of  most  grains  and  the  residues  from 
them  can  be  considered  as  tolerably  pure  fat,  but  that  of 
all  green  and  coarse  fodders,  such  as  hay,  straw,  stover, 
etc.,  consists  of  a  mixture  of  the  most  various  substances, 
among  which,  along  with  the  real  fat,  numerous  wax  and  tar- 
like bodies,  and  especially  leaf -green,  or  chlorophyll,  occur 
in  varying  quantity.  These  substances  are  certainly  of  very 
varying  importance,  and  in  part  are  entirely  indigestible. 

Ash. — The  mineral  matter,  or  ash,  of  a  fodder  is  deter- 
mined by  carefully  burning  a  weighed  quantity  at  as  low 
a  temperature  as  possible,  to  avoid  volatilization  of  alkaline 
chlorides. 

From  the  ash  thus  obtained  is  deducted  any  particles  of 
coal  which  it  contains,  and  also  the  carbonic  acid,  since  the 
latter  is  only  formed  in  the  burnmg  of  the  organic  matter, 
and  is  often  very  variable  in  quantity,  according  to  the 
temperature  at  which  the  ash  is  prepared,  so  that  it  is  not 
properly  a  constituent  of  the  latter. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE- FEEDING.  61 

Nitrogen-free  Extract. — All  that  remains  of  the  dry 
natter  of  the  fodder,  after  deducting  the  crude  protein, 
crude  fibre,  crude  fat,  and  ash,  is  designated  as  nitrogen- 
free  extract  (JST.  fr.  Extr.)  ;  that  is,  the  quantity  of  the  lat- 
ter is  determined  by  difference. 

In  all  grains  and  roots  this  is  of  a  tolerably  simple  na- 
ture, and  consists  chiefly  of  starch  or  sugar  and  bodies  of 
the  pectin  group,  and  sometimes  of  vegetable  mucilage, 
which  has  a  composition  analogous  to  that  of  starch  and 
exerts,  probably,  an  equal  nutritive  effect. 

But  in  green  and  coarse  fodders  we  have,  in  addition, 
varying  quantities  of  gum-like  substances  and  of  lignin, 
which  latter  partly  dissolves  when  the  fodder  is  treated 
with  acids  and  alkalies,  but,  at  the  same  time,  appears  not 
to  be  resorbed  in  the  alimentary  canal,  and  therefore  not 
to  contribute  to  the  nourishment  of  the  animal. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  shall  see  further  on  that  all  of 
the  nitrogen-free  extract  which  is  really  digested  has  the 
percentage  composition  of  starch,  and  that,  therefore,  the 
non-nitrogenous  nutrients  of  fodders,  with  the  exception 
of  fat,  may  be  considered  in  general  as  carbhydrates. 

The  small  quantities  of  organic  acids  and  other  bodies 
present  are  of  no  direct  importance  as  nutrients,  though 
they  often  have  an  important  indirect  influence,  either  by 
imparting  to  the  fodder  an  agreeable  taste  or  smell,  or  the 
reverse,  by  some  specific  physiological  action,  or  by  impart- 
ing undesirable  properties  to  the  products  of  the  animal 
— e.  g.,  the  well-known  effect  of  cabbage,  rape  cake,  or 
onions  on  milk. 

Nutritive  Ratio. — Along  with  the  composition  of  a 
fodder  we  usually  find  given  its  nutritwe  ratio,  by  which 
we  understand  the  ratio  of  the  digestible  protein  to  the 
digestible  non-nitrogenous  nutrients. 


52  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

From  tlie  results  of  large  numbers  of  digestion  experi- 
ments, we  are  able  to  tell,  with  a  good  degree  of  certainty, 
what  percentage  of  the  several  nutrients  of  any  fodder  is 
digestible,  and  these  results  are  to  be  found  in  tables  of 
"  digestion  coefficients." 

Suppose,  now,  that  we  have  the  analysis  of  a  sample  of 
average  meadow  hay  of  the  following  composition  : 

Water 14.3  per  cent. 

Ash 6.2        " 

Protein 9.7         "• 

Crude-fibre „ , 26.3        " 

Nitrogen-free  extract 41.0        " 

Fat 2.5        " 

100.0 

The  average  of  all  available  experiments  shows  that  the 
following  proportions  of  the  different  nutrients  are  digest- 
ible : 

Protein 56  per  cent. 

Crude-fibre 57        " 

Nitrogen-free  extract 63         " 

Fat 48        " 

We  therefore  multiply  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  con- 
tained in  the  fodder  by  the  corresponding  digestion  co- 
efficient, and  obtain  the  following  results : 

Digestible  protein =  9.7  x  0.56=  5.4  per  cent. 

crude-fibre =26.3x0.57=15.0 

extract =41.0x0.63=25.8        " 

"         fat =  2.5  X  0.48=  1.2        " 

The  digestible  portions  of  the  crude-fibre  and  nitrogen- 
free  extract  have  been  shown  to  have  the  composition  of 
starch,  and  may  be  considered  as  of  equal  nutritive  value, 


MANUAL   OP   CATTLE-FEEDING.  63 

poimd  for  pound  ;  but  the  fat  produces  a  greater  effect  in 
tlie  body  than  an  equal  weight  of  carbhydrates,  and  this 
fact  must  be  taken  into  account.  It  was  formerly  believed 
that  the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  served  cliiefly  as  fuel  in 
the  body  to  maintain  the  animal  heat,  and  that  since  a 
pound  of  fat  yields  two  and  one- half  times  as  much  heat 
when  burned  as  a  pound  of  starch,  it  was  therefore  two 
and  one-half  times  as  valuable  a  food,  and  hence,  in  calcu- 
lating nutritive  ratios,  the  fat  was  reduced  to  its  "  starch 
equivalent "  by  multiplication  by  2^.  We  now  know  that 
this  Is  but  a  partial  and,  for  purposes  of  feeding,  a  mis- 
leading view,  and  it  is  probable  that  in  time  the  present 
factor,  2|-,  will  be  replaced  by  a  more  correct  one ;  but  tliat 
time  is  not  yet,  and,  in  the  meantime,  we  must  follow 
established  custom,  for  the  sake  of  rendering  our  analyses 
comparable  with  others. 

We  therefore  make  the  following  calculation : 

Digestible  fat  x  2^ _   =  3.0 

Digestible  fibre.  „ =15.0 

Digestible  extract =25.8 

43.8 
Digestible  protein » . . . . , . , , ,         =  5,4 

The  nutritive  ratio,  then,  is  5.4  :  43.8,  or  1  :  8.1 ;  the 
quantity  of  digestible  protein  being  usually  taken  aa 
unity. 


CRAPTER  III. 

DIGESTION  AND  RESORPTION. 
§  1.  Digestion. 

Introductory. — The  nutrients  described  in  the  preced- 
ing chapter,  as  they  occur  in  the  ordinary  fodders,  are  not 
in  suitable  condition  to  become  at  once  part  of  the  body. 
They  must  be  separated  from  the  various  useless  substan- 
ces with  which  they  are  associated,  and  be  converted  into 
soluble  forms,  before  they  can  be  taken  up  into  the  circula- 
tion and  so  serve  to  nourish  the  body ; — that  is,  they  must 
be  digested. 

"  The  digestive  apparatus  has  been  compared  to  the  fit- 
tings of  a  pharmaceutist's  laboratory  in  which  extracts  are 
prepared  from  organic  substances.  As,  there,  the  mass  to 
be  extracted  is  pulverized  by  mortars,  rasps,  knives,  and 
similar  tools,  so  are  the  feeding-stuffs  by  the  teeth  of  the 
animal ;  what  is  effected  there  by  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and 
other  extracting  fluids,  the  digestive  juices  which  are  se- 
creted by  various  glands,  and  with  which  the  whole  mass 
to  be  digested  is  saturated,  do  in  the  animal  body. 

"  As,  in  the  laboratory,  the  sufficiently  extracted  materials 
are  filtered  to  obtain  the  finished  extract,  so  the  filtration 
of  the  extracted  nutrients  in  the  animal  body  takes  place 
through  the  membranes  of  the  intestines. 

"  In  the  laboratory,  the  finished  extract  is  received  into  a 
suitable  vessel,  and  the  worthless  residue  is  thrown  away ; 
in  the  body,  the  blood  and  lymph  vessels  receive  the  ex- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  55 

tracted  nutrients,  while  the  undissolved  residue,  which  has 
no  nutritive  value,  is  removed  from  the  body  in  the  form 
of  the  solid  excrements. 

"  There  exists,  however,  one  great  difference  between  the 
extracts  prepared  in  the  laboratory  and  those  produced  in 
the  animal  organism  ;  the  former  contain,  unaltered,  the 
soluble  matters  which  were  present  in  the  crude  materials, 
while  the  constituents  of  the  latter  are  essentially  different 
fi'om  those  contained  in  the  food. 

"  This  difference  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  action  of  the 
digestive  fluids  is  a  more  energetic  one,  and  is  accompanied 
by  a  chemical  alteration  of  the  dissolved  substances." — {Set- 
tegast.) 

Mastication  and  Insalivation. — The  process  of  diges- 
tion takes  place  in  the  alimentary  canal,  consisting  of  the 
mouth,  gullet,  stomach,  and  small  and  large  intestines. 

The  first  step  in  the  process  takes  place  in  the  mouth, 
and  consists,  in  the  first  place,  of  the  act  of  mastication, 
by  which  the  food  is  broken  up  and  thus  made  to  expose 
more  surface  to  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids.  At  the 
same  time  certain  glands  (salivary  glands),  opening  into 
the  mouth,  pour  out  abundantly  a  fluid  known  as  the 
saliva.  The  secretion  of  the  different  salivary  glands  varies 
considerably  in  appearance  and  properties.  The  mixed  sa- 
liva, as  it  is  found  in  the  mouth,  is  a  watery,  alkaline, 
somewhat  slimy,  transparent  or  slightly  turbid  fluid,  con- 
taining from  one-half  to  one  per  cent,  of  solid  matter. 
This  fluid  is  mixed  thoroughly  with  the  food  during  mas- 
tication, and  serves  to  moisten  and  soften  it  and  so  to 
bring  it  into  a  suitable  condition  to  be  swallowed  and 
further  acted  upon. 

Besides  moistening  the  food,  however,  the  saliva  con- 
tains a  ferment,  called  ^tyaUn^  which  has  the  power,  at 


56 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


the  temperatur-e  of  the  body,  of  acting  upon  starch  with 
very  much  the  same  results  as  boiling  dilute  acids  or  alka- 
lies, viz.,  converting  it  into  a  form  of  sugar,  i.  e.,  a  soluble 
substance  which  can  easily  pass  into  the  circulation.  To  how 
great  an  extent  this  action  takes  place  is  a  somewhat  dis- 
puted point,  but  there  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  it  is  at 
least  of  some  consequence,  though  it  by  no  means  completes 
the  digestion  of  the  starch,  especially  in  animals  having  a 
simple  stomach.  Moreover,  the  saliva,  being  a  very  watery 
secretion,  dissolves  the  soluble  matters  of  the  food,  and 
forms,  to  a  certain  extent,  an  aqueous  extract  of  it. 

Rumination. — From  the  mouth,  the  food,  after  being 
formed  into  morsels  by  the  tongue,  passes  through  the 

gullet  to  the  stomach. 

In  animals  with  a  simple 
stomach,  the  horse  or  hog,  e.  g., 
the  acts  of  mastication  and  in- 
salivation  are  performed  com- 
pletely at  first,  but  in  the  case 
of  animals  that  chew  the  cud 
(ruminants),  the  food  is  at  first 
only  slightly  chewed,  and  then 
passes  into  one  of  the  divisions 
of  their  compound  stomach. 

The  stomach  of  the  ruminants 
consists  of  four  divisions,  as 
shown  in  outline  in  fig.  2. 

The  slightly-chewed  masses 
pass  first  through  the  gullet, 
a,  into  the  largest  division  of  the  stomach,  the  pmmch 
or  first  stomach,  hh,  and  partly  also  into  the  second  stom- 
ach or  reticuluTn,  c. 

Ilere  they  remain  for  a  time,  until  softened  by  the  sa- 


FiO.  2.— (J.  Kuhn.) 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE- FEEDING.  57 

liva  and  the  alkaline  fluid  secreted  by  the  stomach  itself. 
What  is  dissolved  here  passes  directly  on  through  the 
other  divisions  of  the  stomach,  while  the  undissolved  sub- 
stances pass,  a  portion  at  a  time,  into  the  gullet,  and  are 
returned  to  the  mouth  to  be  thoroughly  chewed  and  mixed 
with  saliva. 

From  the  opening  of  the  gullet  into  the  fii'st  stomach,  a 
passage  called  the  obso^hogean  demi-canal  leads  by  the 
paunch  and  reticulum  to  the  third  stomach.  This  canal 
may  be  described  as  a  continuation  of  the  gullet,  having 
a  slit  in  its  lower  wall  which  forms  an  opening  into  the  fii'st 
and  second  stomachs. 

When  the  food  is  swallowed  the  first  time,  its  bulk  seems 
to  open  the  slit  in  the  canal  so  that  it  passes  mto  these  two 
stomachs  as  already  stated. 

Wlien  swallowed  the  second  time,  a  portion  of  it  passes 
through  this  slit  back  into  the  first  and  second  stomachs, 
but  much  of  it  goes  on  into  the  third  stomach  {omasum 
or  manifolds)^  d,  from  which  it  does  not  return  again  to  the 
mouth. 

The  interior  surface  of  this  division  of  the  stomach  is 
composed  of  numerous  folds  of  mucous  membrane,  between 
which  the  food  is  received  and  subjected  to  more  or  less 
mechanical  action,  while  the  numerous  capillary  blood- 
vessels which  the  folds  contain  take  up  whatever  materials 
are  dissolved. 

From  the  omasum  the  food  passes  to  the  fourth  stomach, 
abomasum^  or  rennet,  e,  there  to  undergo  the  ordinary  pro- 
cesses of  digestion  in  the  same  manner  as  in  animals  with 
a  simple  stomach. 

So  long  as  the  young  animal  lives  on  milk  alone,  the 
first  three  divisions  of  the  stomach  remain  undeveloped, 
and  the  food  passes  directly  into  the  fourth ;  but  as  it 


58  MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

begins  to  eat  more  voluminous  food  the  fii'st  three  are  de. 
veloped  and  begin  their  fimctions. 

Liquid  foods,  in  the  full-grown  animal,  pass  partly  into 
all  four  stomachs. 

The  ruminants  are  thus  especially  adapted  by  nature  to 
digest  and  utilize  large  volumes  of  coarse  and  relatively 
poor  fodder,  straw  e.  g.,  and  to  extract  from  them  the 
nutrients  which  they  contain. 

The  opinion  has  been  almost  universally  held  that  a  cer- 
tain volume  of  fodder  is  essential  to  the  well-being  of  rmni- 
nating  animals,  and  that,  when  concentrated  feeding-stuffs 
are  used,  they  must  be  supplemented  by  a  suitable  amount  of 
coarse  fodder,  such  as  hay  or  straw,  in  order  that  the  hn- 
portant  function  of  rumination  may  not  be  disturbed. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  a  bulky  fodder  is  the  natural  food 
of  ruminants,  but  the  somewhat  famous  experiments  of 
Mr.  Linus  "W.  Miller,  of  Stockton,  N.  Y.,  seem  to  show 
that  rumination  may  be  suspended  for  a  considerable  time 
with  no  injurious  results. 

Mr.  Miller  states  that  for  several  years  he  has  success- 
fully wintered  his  cows  on  corn-meal  exclusively,  feeding 
about  three  quarts  per  day  and  head,  and  that,  although 
rumination  has  been  entirely  suspended  for  some  months, 
no  ill-effects  were  observed.  Several  others  have  also  tried 
his  system  with  favorable  results. 

The  question  of  the  sufficiency  of  such  a  ration  we  shall 
consider  further  on,  but  although  the  experiments  have 
been  the  object  of  much  criticism  they  certainly  seem  to 
show  that  a  bulky  fodder  is  not  so  essential  to  rmninants 
as  has  been  supposed. 

Natm-ally,  however,  coarse  fodders  will  continue  to  form 
the  basis  for  the  rations  of  our  farm  animals  under  most 
circumstances ;  and  since,  in  that  case,  the  process  of  diges- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  59 

tion  is  a  complicated  and  a  slow  one,  the  animals  should  be 
allowed  the  necessary  time  and  repose  to  complete  the  act 
of  rumination  undisturbed. 

Gastric  Digestion. — In  the  fourth  stomach  of  rumi- 
nants and  the  simple  stomach  of  other  animals,  the  food  is 
subjected  to  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice.  This  fluid  is 
produced  by  innumerable  small  glands,  imbedded  in  the 
inner  coat  of  the  stomach,  which,  when  excited  by  the  pres- 
ence of  solid  matter  in  the  latter,  pour  out  abundantly 
a  clear,  colorless  fluid,  having  a  sour  taste  and  smell,  and 
containing  two  characteristic  ingredients. 

One  of  these  is  inuriatic  acid.,  the  chlorine  of  which 
comes  from  the  salt  of  the  food ;  the  other  is,  pepsin,  an  or- 
ganic substance  about  whose  composition  and  properties 
little  is  known  with  certainty,  but  which  acts  powerfully,  at 
the  temperature  of  the  body,  on  the  albuminoids  of  the 
food. 

Its  first  effect  on  the  soluble  albuminoids  is  to  coagulate 
them.  Afterward,  however,  the  pepsin,  in  the  presence  of 
the  muriatic  acid  of  the  gastric  juice,  acts  on  the  coagulated 
or  the  originally  solid  albuminoids,  and  converts  them  into 
substances  called  jpejptones,  having  much  the  same  proper- 
ties as  protein,  but  soluble  in  water,  and  hence  easily  taken 
up  into  the  circulation. 

The  formation  of  peptones  from  albuminoids  seems  to  be  accom- 
plished by  the  assimilation  by  the  latter  of  the  elements  of  water,  being 
similar  to  the  formation  of  dextrine  and  sugar  from  starch  by  the  ac- 
tion of  acids  or  alkalies.  Indeed,  albumin,  when  treated  with  acids, 
yields  peptones. 

According  to  Hoppe-Seyler,*  the  chief  action  of  pepsin  consists  in 
this,,  that  it  unites  with  the  muriatic  acid  present,  transfers  it  to  the 


"Physiologische  Chemie,"  1878,  p„  231. 


60  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

protein,  unites  with  a  fresh  quantity,  transfers  this,  again,  to  the  pro 
tein,  and  so  on  to  an  indefinite  extent. 

If  this  be  true,  the  similarity  between  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice 
and  that  of  acids  is  very  close. 

The  quantity  of  pepsin  concerned  in  this  process  is  very 
small,  and  it  is  found  that  the  same  pepsin  is  capable  of 
acting  over  and  over  again  and  converting  apparently  un- 
limited quantities  of  albuminoids  into  peptones,  provided 
that  more  acid  is  added  from  time  to  time. 

It  is  stated  that  the  digestion  of  the  albuminoids  by  the 
pepsin  and  nmriatic  acid  of  the  gastric  juice,  and  their 
conversion  into  soluble  peptones,  is  facilitated  by  the  pres- 
ence of  a  little  fat  in  the  food,  and  by  salt,  which  causes  an 
increased  secretion  of  the  gastric  juice. 

It  is  hindered  by  dilution  of  the  gastric  juice  by  large 
amounts  of  drink,  and  too  high  or  too  low  a  temperature 
of  the  drink  may,  by  destroying  the  pepsin,  suspend  the 
digestion  altogether,  until  new  pepsin  can  be  secreted. 

The  action  of  the  gastric  juice  on  the  food  is  aided  by  a 
peculiar  action  of  the  involuntary  muscles  which  form  one 
of  the  coats  of  the  stomach.  These  keep  the  food  con- 
tinually in  motion  in  the  stomach,  and  in  this  way  mix  it 
thoroughly  with  the  gastric  juice,  so  that  all  parts  of  it 
may  be  acted  upon. 

By  means  of  the  gastric  juice,  aided  by  the  motion  of  the 
stomach  just  described,  portions  of  the  food  are  dissolved, 
and  the  whole  converted  into  a  more  or  less  fluid  mass 
called  chyme. 

A  portion  of  the  chyme  is  resorbed  in  the  stomach,  and 
passes  directly  or  indirectly  into  the  circulation.  Tliis  is 
the  case  with  the  sugar  produced  fi'om  the  carbhydrates  of 
the  food  by  the  saliva,  with  the  vegetable  acids,  and  in 
general  with  the  easily  soluble  constituents  c>f  the  chyme, 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  61 

and  witli  water.  They  are  largely  (not  entirely)  taken  up 
by  the  blood-vessels  of  the  stomach.  Some  of  the  pep- 
tones are  also  resorbed  in  the  stomach,  though  not  into  the 
blood-vessels  but  into  the  lymphatics,  but  a  large  part  of 
them,  along  with  the  portions  of  the  food  not  yet  acted  on, 
leaves  the  stomach  through  a  valve,  called  the  ;pylor\ts^  at 
its  lower  end  (/J  fig.  2),  and  passes  into  the  intestines 
(^,  %•  2). 

Intestinal  Digestion. — The  intestines  form  a  long  tube, 
folded  and  bent  many  times  upon  itself,  which,  togetlier  with 
the  stomach,  liver,  and  a  few  other  organs,  fills  the  cavity 
of  the  abdomeUo 

Its  length  varies  very  considerably  in  different  animals. 
In  carnivorous  animals,  which  live  on  easily-digested  and 
concentrated  food,  it  is  from  four  to  six  times  the  length  of 
the  body ;  while  in  herbivorous  animals,  which  feed  on  vo- 
luminous fodder,  it  is  very  much  longer,  being  ten  to  twelve 
times  the  length  of  the  body  in  the  liorse,  twenty  times  in 
the  ox,  and  twenty -five  to  twenty-six  times  in  the  goat.  It 
is  divided  into  two  principal  parts — the  small  intestine,  be- 
ginning with  the  stomach  and  forming  about  f  to  f  of  the 
whole  length,  and  the  large  intestine,  ending  with  the  anus. 

The  movement  of  the  food  through  the  intestines  is 
accomplished  by  a  peculiar  worm-like  motion  of  the  latter, 
resembling  that  of  the  stomach  and  called  the  peristaltic 
motion.  It  is  produced  by  the  involuntary  muscles  of  the 
intestines,  and  effects  both  a  forward  movement  of  the 
food  and  a  mixture  of  it'with  the  various  digestive  fluids 
to  whose  action  it  is  subjected. 

Chief  among  these  digestive  fluids  are  the  bile  and  the 
pancreatic  juice. 

The  hile,  or  gall,  of  the  herbivora  is  a  dark  yellowish- 
green  li(_[uid,  secreted  by  the  liver,  the  largest  gland  m  the 


62  MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

body,  and,  in  most  animals,  stored  up  in  the  gall-bladdel 
till  it  is  needed. 

The  composition  of  the  bile  is  very  complex,  and  need 
not  be  taken  up  in  detail  here.  It  contains  two  character- 
istic coloring  matters,  hiliruhin  and  hiliverdln^  but  its 
most  important  and  necessary  ingredients  are  compounds 
of  soda  with  certain  organic  acids,  viz. :  glycocholic  and 
taurocholic,  and  in  the  hog  hyoglycochoUc  acids.  The  soda 
of  these  compomids  comes  almost  entirely  from  the  salt 
(sodium  chloride)  of  the  food,  while  the  same  substance 
furnishes  chlorine  for  the  equally  necessary  muriatic  acid 
of  the  gastric  juice. 

The  chief  action  of  the  bile  is  on  the  fat  of  the  food, 
A  small  portion  seems  to  be  decomposed  by  the  soda  salts 
of  the  bile,  forming  soluble  soda  salts  of  the  fatty  acids 
(soaps) ;  but  the  main  effect  is  to  emulsify  the  fat,  that  is, 
to  separate  it  into  minute  globules  like  the  butter  globules 
in  milk,  and  to  hold  these  globules  suspended,  so  that  the 
whole  forms  a  thin  fluid  resembling  milk  and  called  an 
emulsion.  This  fluid  can  be  taken  up  by  the  resorbent 
vessels  of  the  intestines  when  the  latter  are  wet  with  bile. 

Besides  its  function  of  digesting  the  fats,  the  bile  serves 
to  hinder,  to  some  extent,  the  decay  of  the  easily  decom- 
posable albuminoids. 

When  bile  is  added  to  the  contents  of  the  stomach  in  the 
state  in  which  they  enter  the  intestines,  the  peptones 
which  they  contain,  as  well  as  the  pepsin,  are  precipitated 
and  the  digestive  process  is  stopped.  A  further  addition 
of  bile,  however,  redissolves  the  precipitate,  but  since  the 
muriatic  acid  of  the  gastric  juice  is  neutralized  by  the  soda 
of  the  bile,  the  action  of  the  pepsin  is  stopped.  In  the  in- 
testines, however,  the  latter  is  more  than  replaced  by  the 
ferment  of  the  pancreatic  juice. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  63 

The  bile  is  secreted  in  very  considerable  quantity,  but 
most  of  what  is  not  used  in  digestion  is  taken  up  by  the 
blood-vessels  and  resorbents  of  the  intestines.  The  color 
of  the  solid  excrements  is  due  largely  to  portions  of  the 
bile  that  escape  resorption. 

The  jpancreatic  jidce,  the  secretion  of  the  pancreas,  or 
sweetbread,  is  a  clear,  viscid,  colorless  liquid,  having  a 
slightly  salt  taste  and  a  distinctly  alkaline  reaction. 

It  contains  at  least  three  distinct  ferments,  viz. :  a  dias- 
tase, capable  of  converting  starch  into  sugar ;  tryj^sin, 
which  acts  on  the  albummoids ;  and  a  ferment  which  sepa- 
rates fats  into  glycerine  and  fatty  acids. 

By  virtue  of  the  first  of  these  ferments,  the  starch  of 
the  food  which  is  not  acted  on  in  the  stomach  is  rapidly 
converted  into  su2:ar. 

The  trypsin  of  the  pancreatic  juice  acts  powerfully  upon 
albuminoids  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  pepsin  of  the 
gastric  juice,  but  with  the  differences  that  trypsin  acts  in 
alkaline  or  at  most  very  weakly  acid  Golution,  and  that 
the  decomposition  goes  further. 

Under  the  action  of  pepsin  the  albuminoids  yield  chiefly 
peptones,  wdth  small  quantities  of  the  well-known  amides, 
leucin  and  tyrosin,  while  trypsin,  on  the  contrary,  decom- 
poses the  peptones  at  first  formed,  and  produces  abundant 
quantities  of  the  amides  just  mentioned,  at  least  in  artifi- 
cial digestion  experiments. 

The  action  of  the  pancreatic  juice  upon  the  fats  is  a 
two-fold  one ;  it  rapidly  converts  them  into  an  exceedingly 
fine  and  permanent  emulsion,  and  more  slowly  decom- 
poses them  into  their  constituents,  glycerine  and  fatty 
acids. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  pancreatic  juice  is  a  most 
important   secretion,    acting,   as   it   does,  upon  all   three 


64  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDIXG. 

classes  of  nutrients  and  supplementing  the  saliva,  the 
gastric  juice,  and  the  bile. 

Intestinal  fluid. — It  is  commonly  stated  that,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  bile  and  pancreatic  juice,  the  food  is  acted  on 
by  a  third  fluid  secreted  by  numerous  little  glands,  known 
as  Lieberkiihn's  glands,  in  the  nmcous  membrane  of  the 
intestines.  The  statements  regarding  the  composition  of 
this  fluid  and  its  action  on  the  food  are  very  conflicting, 
doubtless  owing  in  part  to  the  difiiculty  of  obtaining  it  un- 
mLxed  with  the  other  digestive  fluids,  and  there  seems  to 
be  considerable  doubt  of  its  existence,  which  at  any  rate 
cannot  be  regarded  as  proven. 

Recapitulation. — We  see,  then,  that  the  whole  process 
of  digestion  is  simply  a  conversion  of  the  solid  matters  of 
the  food  into  forms  which  are  soluble  in  water  or  in  the 
digestive  fluids  and  can  therefore  pass  into  the  circulation. 
This  is  accomplished,  in  case  of  the  albuminoids  by  the  gas- 
tric juice  in  the  stomach  and  the  pancreatic  juice  in  the 
intestines,  in  case  of  starch,  etc.,  by  the  saliva  and  the  pan- 
creatic juice,  and  in  case  of  the  fats  by  the  bile  and  pan- 
creatic juice.  In  what  part  of  the  alimentary  canal,  or  by 
what  secretion,  cellulose  is  digested,  is  not  known.  Possi- 
bly the  pancreatic  juice,  which  acts  so  powerfully  on  the 
other  carbhydrates,  is  the  agent  of  its  solution,  but  this  is 
only  a  conjecture.  . 

The  latest  view  regarding  the  digestion  of  cellulose  is 
that  it  is  not  accomplished  by  any  specific  digestive  fluid, 
but  that  in  the  extensive  digestive  canal  of  the  herbivora 
it  undergoes  a  sort  of  fermentation,  caused  by  the  innu- 
merable bactei'ia  and  other  low  organisms  there  present, 
and  yields  marsh  gas,  carbonic  acid,  hydrogen,  and  various 
soluble  products. 

By  the  action  of  these  various  digestive  fluids,  the  chyme 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  65 

which  comes  from  the  stomach  is  converted  into  a  more  or 
less  thin,  milky  fluid,  called  chyle. 

The  ease  of  digestion  depends  on  various  circum- 
stances. 

Digestion  is  both  a  chemical  and  physical  process,  con- 
sisting of  solution  and  chemical  change  of  the  nutrients  by 
means  of  the  digestive  fluids,  and  the  rapidity  of  this  pro- 
cess depends,  in  general,  upon  the  same  conditions  which 
determine  that  of  similar  processes  outside  the  body.  Hard 
and  compact  fodder  is  less  easily  digested  than  that  which 
is  soft  and  watery,  other  things  being  equal,  simply  be- 
cause it  is  not  so  easily  penetrated  by  the  juices,  and  hence 
exposes  less  surface  to  their  action,  just  as  coarse  salt  dis- 
solves more  slowly  than  fine. 

If  the  nutrients  are  shut  up  in  insoluble  envelopes,  they 
are  protected  from  the  action  of  the  juices.  Thus,  if  we 
have  starch  in  a  cell  whose  walls  are  incrusted  thickly  with 
the  indigestible  (because  insoluble)  lignin,  the  starch  may 
be,  to  a  large  extent,  protected  and  escape  digestion.  So, 
too,  if  whole  grain  is  fed  and  escapes  mastication,  the 
hard  outer  coats  of  the  seed  protect  the  interior,  and  the 
grain  is  frequently  found  with  little  alteration  in  the  ex- 
crements. 

In  a  chemical  process,  the  proportions  of  the  substances 
concerned  are  of  the  greatest  importance. 

So,  too,  in  digestion,  the  proportions  of  albuminoids, 
carbhydrates,  and  fat,  exercise  an  important  influence  on 
the  digestibility  of  each  of  these  groups,  though  exactly  in 
what  way  we  are  ignorant. 

That  a  moderate  proportion  of  fat  aids  the  digestion  of 
the  albuminoids  in  the  stomach,  has  already  been  men- 
tioned. Too  great  an  amount  of  fat,  on  the  contrary, 
hinders  digestion. 


66  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

If  the  fodder  be  poor  in  albuminoids  and  rich  in  starch, 
the  latter  may  escape  digestion  in  considerable  quantities ; 
and  as  it  is  of  no  value  in  the  manure  (since  it  only  fm*- 
nishes  to  the  plant  the  elements  of  carbonic  acid  and  water, 
with  both  of  which  it  is  richly  supplied  by  the  atmosphere) 
that  which  thus  escapes  is  a  dead  loss,  while  if,  on  account 
of  a  too  great  proportion  of  albuminoids,  a  portion  of  these 
pass  into  the  manure,  they  still  are  able  to  furnish  the 
plant  with  the  valuable  element,  nitrogen. 

In  a  properly  proportioned  fodder,  however,  the  quan- 
tity of  really  digestible  matters  that  escapes  digestion  is 
comparatively  small,  although  ^ij^erfect  digestion  of  them 
is  not  to  be  expected.  Small  portions  will  escape  diges- 
tion, either  owing  to  their  hardness  and  impermeability, 
or  to  their  being  protected  by  insoluble  matters,  or  simply 
from  the  fact  that  they  are  not  exposed  for  a  sufficient 
time  to  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids. 

This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  ruminants,  in  which 
the  process  of  digestion  is  long,  extending  through  two 
or  three  days,  are  able  to  digest  more  of  hard  and  diffi- 
cultly soluble  matters,  especially  of  crude  fibre,  than  other 
herbivora,  in  which  the  process  is  simpler  and  shorter,  the 
horse,  e.  g. 

§  2.  Resorption. 

We  have  seen  that  the  process  of  digestion  is  essentially 
a  process  of  solution,  the  various  nutrients  of  the  food  be- 
ing altered  into  soluble  forms  and  dissolved  by  the  diges- 
tive fluids. 

But  the  digested  food,  so  long  as  it  remains  in  the  ali- 
mentary canal,  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  still  outside  the 
body ;  it  has  not  yet  been  taken  up  into  its  vessels  and  be- 
come really  a  part  of  it.    It  must  still  be  resorhed  or  taken 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  67 

up  into  the  circulation  by  the  resorbent  vessels  which  line 
the  stomach  and  intestines. 

The  Epithelium. — In  all  vertebrate  animals,  the  whole 
surface  of  the  intestines,  from  end  to  end,  is  covered  with 
so-called  epithelial  cells,  which  are  remarkably  similar  in 
all  animals.  These  cells  are  roughly  cylindiical,  and  are 
thickly  crowded  together,  leaving  no  spaces  between  them. 
They  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  cell  wall,  but  are 
open  toward  the  interior  of  the  intestines,  and  also,  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  communicate  on  the  other 
side  with  the  lacteals. 

The  cells  contain  a  soft  mass  of  protoplasm,  which,  when 
resorption  is  not  going  on,  bears  on  its  intestinal  sm-face 
minute  upright  fibres,  which  give  the  surface  of  the  intes- 
tines a  velvety  appearance.  During  resorption,  however, 
these  fibres  nearly  disappear  into  the  main  part  of  the  cell 
contents. 

The  Villi. — In  the  higher  animals  the  extent  of  resorb- 
ing  surface  in  the  intestines  is  greatly  increased  by  various 
folds  and  projections  of  its  surface,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  the  villi.  These  are  little  conical,  round,  or 
club-shaped  protuberances  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  in- 
testines. They  are  covered,  like  all  parts  of  the  intestinal 
surface,  with  the  epithelial  cells  just  described,  and  under- 
neath these  there  is  said  to  be  a  fine  membrane.  Beneath 
this  membrane  there  are  found  numerous  minute  capillary 
blood-vessels,  a  layer  of  smooth  (involuntary)  muscular 
fibres,  and  a  net-work  of  nerves.  All  three  layers  fol- 
low the  epithelium  of  the  intestines  in  all  its  folds  and 
projections,  and  thus  in  the  villi  take  somewhat  the 
shape  of  a  glove-finger.  In  the  centre  of  each  of  the 
viUi  ends  a  vessel  called  a  lacteal,  belonging  to  the 
lymphatic  system. 


6S 


MAiq-UAL   OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Fig.  3  sliows  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  villus,  in  which 
a  represents  the  epithelial  cells,  h  the  capillary  blood-ves- 
sels, c  the  layer  of  muscular  fibres,  and  d  the  lacteal. 

Lacteals  and  Blood-Vessels. — The 
lacteal s  unite  into  larger  ones  leading 
to  the  mesenteric  glands^  and  after 
leaving  these,  finally  join  the  thoracic 
duct,  a  large  vessel  leading  forward  (in 
man  upward)  and  emptying  into  a  vein 
in  the  left  side  near  the  collar-bone, 
called  the  left  suhclavian  vein,  near  its 
entrance  into  the  heart. 

They  derive  their  name  from  a  millvy- 
looking  fluid  with  which  they  are  filled 
during  digestion,  and  which  owes  its  ap- 
pearance to  the  digested  and  emulsified 
fat  of  the  food  which  has  been  resorbed 
from  the  chyle.  At  other  times  they 
contain  a  clear  or  opalescent  liquid 
called  lymph. 

The  capillaries  of  the  intestines  also  unite  into  larger 
vessels,  and  finally  into  one,  the  ])ortal  vein,  leading  to  the 
liver.  (Compare  fig.  4,  p.  77.)  There  the  blood  which 
it  carries  is  distributed  through  a  second  set  of  capillaries 
in  that  organ,  and  then  reunited  again  into  a  single  vein, 
the  he2)atic  vein,  leading  almost  directly  to  the  heart. 

Phenomena  of  Resorption. — As  soon  as  the  food 
passes  from  the  stomach  into  the  intestines,  the  resorbents 
of  the  latter  begin  their  work,  and  the  two  processes  of 
digestion  and  resorption  go  on  simultaneously. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  processes  of  resorption  is  not  as 
full  as  might  be  wished.  We  know  that  liquids  and  soluble 
Bubstances  brought  into  the  intestines,  rapidly  disappear 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDIKG.  69 

from  them.  In  some  cases  tlie  substances  thus  resorbed 
are  excreted  unchanged  ;  in  others  we  are  able  to  recognize 
the  products  of  their  decomposition  without  being  able  to 
say  exactly  where  they  are  destroyed.  Water  introduced 
into  the  intestine  disappears,  and  is  excreted  unchanged  in 
the  urine  and  perspiration ;  sugar,  on  the  other  hand, 
while  it  is  rapidly  resorbed,  does  not  reappear  as  such,  but 
speedily  causes  an  increased  excretion  of  carbonic  acid 
through  the  lungs,  showing  that  it  has  been  oxidized  in 
the  body.  It  would  seem  that  only  soluble  substances  are 
resorbed,  both  from  the  fact  that  solutions  are  readily 
taken  up  and  that  the  whole  digestive  process  is  di- 
rected toward  solution  of  the  solid  ingredients  of  the 
food.  The  fats,  however,  form  to  a  certain  extent  an 
exception.  We  have  seen  that  in  the  digestive  process 
they  are  simply  emulsified,  and  only  to  a  very  small  extent 
dissolved.  After  a  meal  containing  much  fat,  the  lacteal s 
are  found  to  be  full  of  a  fluid  having  a  milky  appearance 
which  the  microscope  shows  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of 
innumerable  globules  of  fat,  which  have  evidently  been 
resorbed  from  the  contents  of  the  intestines,  having  passed 
through  the  epithelial  cells. 

Causes  of  Resorption. — It  has  been  extensively  taught 
that  the  phenomena  of  resorption  are  due  chiefly  to  the 
action  of  the  laws  of  the  diffusion  of  liquids  through  mem- 
branes, aided  by  the  pressure  exerted  on  the  contents  of 
the  intestines  by  the  peristaltic  motion. 

It  is  well  known  that,  if  solutions  of  many  substances  be 
enclosed  in  some  membrane,  like  bladder  or  parchment- 
paper,  and  the  whole  placed  in  water,  tlie  dissolved  sub- 
stance will  diffuse  through  the  membrane  into  the  water 
until  the  solution  is  of  equal  strength  on  both  sides  of  the 
membrane,  and  that,  if  the  water  be  continually  renewed, 


70  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

all  the  dissolved  matter  will  finally  be  removed  from  the 
solution  contained  in  the  membrane.  Substances  which 
are  capable  of  thus  passing  through  a  membrane  are  said 
to  be  diffusible. 

In  the  body,  according  to  this  theory  of  resorption,  the 
intestines  constituted  the  enclosing  membrane,  the  diges- 
tive fluids  converted  the  nutrients  into  soluble  and  diffusi- 
ble forms,  while  the  blood  and  lymph  of  the  capillaries 
and  lacteals  was  the  fluid  into  which  diffusion  took  place. 
It  was  found  that  emulsified  fats  could,  by  slight  pressure, 
be  made  to  pass  through  a  membrane  previously  moistened 
with  bile,  and  on  this  fact  was  based  the  explanation  of  the 
resorption  of  fat,  the  pressure  being  supposed  to  be  exerted 
by  the  peristaltic  movements  of  the  intestines,  and  the  pro- 
cess of  filtration  to  be  aided  by  a  peculiar  structure  of  the 
villi  which  kept  the  lacteals  in  their  centre  under  a  less 
pressure  than  was  exerted  on  the  outside.  In  short,  re- 
sorption was  believed  to  consist  in  diffusion,  combined 
with  filtration  imder  pressure. 

This  theory  has  been  extensively  held,  but  the  best  au- 
thorities now  consider  it  entirely  inadequate  to  explain  the 
known  facts  of  resorption. 

As  regards  the  resorption  of  fat,  the  simple  fact  that  the 
villi  are  wanting  in  many  of  the  lower  animals,  and  that 
these  animals  nevertheless  resorb  fat,  shows  that  the  sup- 
posed peculiar  structure  of  the  villi  is  not  essential  to  the 
process,  and  a  more  careful  consideration  of  the  anatomy 
of  the  intestinal  surface  shows  that  the  filtration  theory  is 
untenable. 

The  whole  of  this  sm-face  is  covered  with  the  epithelial 
cells  above  described,  so  closely  crowded  together  that  any 
filtration  must  take  place  tlirough  the  semi-fluid  proto- 
plasm of  the  cells.     This  protoplasm  must  behave  midei 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  71 

pressure  essentially  like  a  liquid,  that  is,  it  must  exert  an 
equal  pressure  upon  all  sides  of  an  object  enclosed  in  it; 
under  these  circumstances,  while  diffusion  may  take  place, 
filtration  is  impossible.  But  if  we  admit  the  impossi 
bility  of  filtration,  the  whole  theory  falls,  for  diffusion 
alone  would,  in  many  cases,  produce  results  entirely  dif- 
ferent fi-om  those  observed.  For  example,  if  water  and 
alcohol  be  separated  by  a  membrane  having  a  greater  at- 
traction for  water,  the  water  passes  through  the  mem- 
brane toward  the  alcohol  faster  than  the  latter  passes  in 
the  opposite  direction,  but  if  alcohol,  so  diluted  as  not  to 
injure  the  epithelium,  be  introduced  into  the  intestines,  it 
is  rapidly  resorbed  into  the  blood,  while  no  water  passes 
from  the  latter  into  the  intestines. 

Moreover,  while  under  normal  conditions  water  is  rapidly 
resorbed,  simple  irritation  of  the  epithelial  cells  is  suffi- 
cient to  cause  the  motion  to  take  place  m  the  opposite 
direction,  viz.,  from  the  blood  into  the  intestines. 

These  and  many  other  considerations  force  us  to  the 
belief  that  the  epithelium  of  the  intestines  is  the  active 
agent  in  resorption,  and  that  resorjjtion  is  a  function  qf 
the  living  protoplasm  of  the  epithelial  cells. 

In  what  manner,  or  by  virtue  of  what  chemical  and 
physical  laws,  the  process  takes  place,  we  are  ignorant ;  and 
until  the  relations  and  properties  of  protoplasm  in  general 
are  much  better  known  than  at  present,  it  must  be  regarded 
as  a  vain  attempt  to  seek  to  discover  them,  nor,  indeed,  is 
it  important  for  our  present  purpose  that  we  should. 

Course  of  the  Nutrients  after  Resorption. — The 
substances  taken  up  by  the  epithelial  cells  appear  to  pass 
from  these  into  the  lacteals.  Their  course  from  this  point 
is  not,  in  all  cases,  easily  followed,  on  accoujit  of  the  rapid 
alteration  which  they  midergo. 


72  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

The  fat  seems  to  be  carried  exclusively  by  the  lacteals, 
and  to  pass  through  the  mesenteric  glands  and  thoracic 
duct  into  the  left  subclavian  vein,  as  already  described. 
Other  substances  pass  more  or  less  completely  into  the 
blood.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  lacteals  in  the  villi 
are  surrounded  by  a  net  of  capillary  blood-vessels  through 
which  blood  is  continually  passing,  and  there  appears  to 
be  no  reason  why  the  easily  diffusible  substances  of  the 
lymph  should  not  pass  into  the  blood,  especially  since  the 
latter,  being  continually  renewed,  would  act  like  a  large 
volume  of  fluid. 

Probably,  then,  the  products  of  the  digestion  of  the 
carbhydrates — viz  ,  sugar,  lactic  acid,  etc. — pass,  in  large 
part,  into  the  blood  and  through  the  portal  vein,  the  capil- 
laries of  the  liver,  and  the  hepatic  vein,  to  the  heart.  The 
same  would  be  true  of  the  amides  formed  by  the  action  of 
the  pancreatic  juice  and  by  decay  from  the  albuminoids, 
and  to  a  less  degree  of  the  peptones,  while  unaltered  pi"o- 
tein,  if  resorbed,  would  be  largely  retained  in  the  contents 
of  the  lacteals,  owing  to  its  slow  rate  of  diffusion. 

All  these  statements  are,  however,  to  a  certain  extent, 
speculative.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the  resorbed  mat- 
ters undergo  chemical  change  in  the  act  of  resoi-ption  by 
the  epithelial  cells :  at  any  rate  they  undergo  such  rapid 
alteration  after  resorption  that  only  traces  of  most  of  them 
can  be  observed  either  in  the  lymph  or  in  the  blood  of  the 
portal  vein. 

The  Faeces. — By  the  process  of  resorption  the  chyle, 
as  it  moves  along  through  the  intestines,  is  exhausted  of 
its  soluble  parts  and  takes  on  a  more  and  more  solid  con- 
sistency, and  finally  is  voided  fi'om  the  body  as  the  faices. 

The  solid  excrements  consist  of  the  indigestible  part  of 
the  food,  those  digestible  parts  which  for  any  reason  may 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  73 

have  escaped  resorption,  and  small  portions  of  tlie  diges- 
tive fluids  and  of  the  worn-out  mucous  membrane  of  the  in- 
testines. In  the  herbivora  they  also  generally  contain  all 
the  phosphoric  acid  coming  from  the  metamorphosis  of  the 
tissues  of  the  body,  while  in  the  carnivora  this  substance 
is  excreted  in  the  urine.  The  color  of  the  excrements,  as 
already  mentioned,  is  usually  due  to  the  portions  of  the 
bile  which  have  escaped  resorption ;  when  much  green 
fodder  is  eaten,  its  green  coloring-matter  (chlorophyl) 
passes  unaltered  into  the  faeces. 

The  composition  of  the  solid  excrements  varies 
largely  according  to  the  feeding  of  the  animal. 

It  is  seldom  possible  to  attain  a  com2>lete  digestion  of  all 
the  nutrients  of  the  food  ;  a  certain  portion  almost  always 
escapes  digestion,  unless,  perhaps,  in  the  concentrated  bye- 
fodders. 

The  undigested  portion  is  generally  larger  when  a  rich 
food  is  given,  i.  e.^  when  we  strive  for  a  rapid  production 
of  organic  substance,  whether  flesh,  fat,  or  milk,  than  when 
the  fodder  is  just  sufficient  to  maintain  the  animal. 

In  the  former  case,  too,  the  residues  of  digestive  fluid 
and  of  worn-out  intestinal  membrane  are  greater,  owing 
to  the  greater  activity  of  these  organs  and  the  greater 
quantity  of  juices  necessary  to  digest  the  richer  and  more 
abundant  fodder,  so  that  fi'om  fattening  or  milk  cattle  we 
get  not  only  a  utilization  of  fodder  materials  and  conver- 
sion of  them  into  valuable  products,  but  an  increase  in  the 
manurial  value  of  the  solid  excrements,  while  in  the  case 
of  animals  on  maintenance-fodder  the  mamu'e  is  the  only 
return  for  the  fodder,  and  is  of  poorer  quality  than  when 
richer  food  is  given. 


CHAPTER  IV, 

CIRCULATION,  RESPIRATION,  AND  EXCRETION. 

§  1.  Circulation. 

The  Blood. — We  have  seen,  in  the  precedmg  chapter, 
that  the  digested  and  resorbed  nutrients  of  the  food  are 
carried  more  or  less  dii'ectlj  into  the  blood,  and  it  is  fi'om 
this  fluid  that  all  parts  of  the  body  derive  those  substances 
necessaiy  for  their  growth  and  the  performance  of  their 
functions. 

The  blood  of  the  higher  animals  is  a  thickish,  somewhat 
viscid  fluid,  ha\4ng  a  faint  but  peculiar  odor,  a  slightly  salt 
taste,  and  a  color  varying  from  bright  to  a  dark  red.  It  is 
somewhat  heavier  than  w^ater  (sp.  gr.  1.0i5 — 1.075),  and 
contains  about  21  per  cent,  of  solid  matters. 

Under  the  microscope  it  is  seen  to  consist  of  a  clear 
fluid,  the  jdas?na,  holding  in  suspension  a  vast  number  of 
small,  round  disks,  the  cmpuscles. 

The  corjntscles  are  of  two  kinds.  By  far  the  most  nu- 
merous are  the  red  corpuscles.  In  man  these  are  round 
like  a  coin  but  thicker  at  the  edges  than  in  the  centre, 
and  have  a  diameter  of  .0060 — .0085  millimetres.  Their 
number  is  enormous,  being  estimated  at  1— 5J  millions  per 
cubic  millimetre.  The  color  and  opacity  of  the  blood  are 
due  to  the  corpuscles. 

The  corpuscles  of  each  kind  of  animal  are  peculiar,  both 
in  shape  and  size,  but  their  general  characteristics  are  the 


MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING.  75 

same  in  all.  Those  of  most  mammals  are  smaller  than 
those  of  man. 

The  corpuscles  contain,  as  characteristic  ingredients,  two 
coloring-matters,  known  as  hcemoglohin  and  oxyhoernoglo- 
hin^  of  each  of  which  there  appear  to  be  several  varieties 
in  the  blood  of  different  animals. 

Ai'terial  blood  contains  only  oxyhgemoglobin.  This  sub- 
stance is  a  bright  red,  crystalline  body,  having  pretty 
nearly  the  percentage  composition  of  protein,  but  contain- 
ing about  0.45  per  cent,  of  iron.  Its  most  remarkable 
property,  however,  is  the  readiness  with  which  it  parts  with 
a  portion  of  its  oxygen  and  is  converted  into  haemoglobin. 

In  the  body  this  process  takes  place  in  the  capillary 
blood-vessels,  so  that  the  blood  as  it  returns  from  these 
to  the  heart  (the  venous  blood)  contains  both  oxyhsemo- 
globin  and  haemoglobin.  The  latter  is  capable  of  the 
reverse  change,  and  in  the  lungs  takes  up  oxygen  and  is 
converted  back  into  oxyhsemoglobin. 

Besides  these  two  coloring-matters,  the  corpuscles  con- 
tain an  albuminoid  which  is  precipitated  by  concentrated 
salt  solution,  small  quantities  of  two  bodies  known  as  cho~ 
lesterin  and  lecithin^  some  other  organic  matters,  and  the 
usual  ash  ingredients,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  being 
especially  abundant. 

In  addition  to  the  red  coi*puscles  the  blood  contains 
colorless  corpuscles,  differing  in  shape  and  appearance 
from  the  red  and  generally  larger.  They  appear  to  be 
formed  in  the  lymph  before  it  joins  the  blood,  but  their 
exact  function  is  not  well  ascertained.  Their  number  is 
vastly  less  than  that  of  the  red,  there  being  about  one  or 
two  of  the  former  to  a  thousand  of  the  latter. 

The  plasma  is  a  nearly  transparent  fluid,  containing  in 
solution  a  large  part  of  the  nutritive  matters  of  the  blood. 


76  MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING, 

Of  the  albuminoids,  it  contains  albumin,  and  blood-fibrin 
or  at  least  one  constituent  of  it ;  it  also  contains  some  fat, 
usually  traces  of  sugar  though  never  large  quantities  of  it, 
and  a  considerable  proportion  of  mineral  matters,  espe- 
cially of  soda  salts  and  chlorides,  besides  minute  traces  of 
various  other  substances. 

Coagulation. — So  long  as  the  blood  remains  in  the  ves- 
sels of  the  living  body  it  continues  fluid,  even  if  its  circu- 
lation be  stopped,  but  when  drawn  from  the  body  it  co- 
agulates after  standing  for  a  time,  yielding  a  yellowish 
liquid,  the  serum,  and  blood-fibrin.  At  ordinary  temper- 
atures the  change  takes  place  rapidly,  but  only  slowly  at  a 
low  temperature  ;  it  is  entirely  hindered  by  addition  to  the 
blood  of  a  strong  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda,  sulphate  of 
magnesia,  nitrate  of  soda,  common  salt,  and  other  sub- 
stances. Opinions  differ  as  to  the  nature  of  the  coagula- 
tion, but  it  is  certain  that  the  blood-fibrin  does  not  exist 
as  such  in  the  blood  but  is  formed  from  a  substance  called 
fibrinogen,  contained  in  the  plasma,  and  concerning  which 
three  facts  may  be  considered  as  established :  1st.  Fibrin 
is  only  formed  in  fluids  which  contain  fibrinogen.  2d.  A 
solution  of  fibrinogen  alone  yields  no  fibrin,  and  hence 
the  action  of  some  other  body  or  bodies  is  requisite.  3d. 
This  other  body  or  bodies  is  yielded  by  the  colorless 
corpuscles. 

A.  Schmidt,  who  has  most  fully  investigated  this  sub- 
ject, regards  the  substances  coming  from  the  colorless  cor- 
puscles as  partaking  of  the  nature  of  a  ferment,  and  be- 
lieves that  they  are  not  contained  in  the  living  blood  but 
are  formed,  after  the  blood  is  drawn  from  the  body,  by  the 
decomposition  of  the  corpuscles.  Whether  this  be  true  or 
not,  there  is  no  doubt  that  these  corpuscles  yield  a  sub- 
stance capable  of  converting  fibrinogen  into  fibrin. 


Fig   4. — rian  of  Circulation. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING.  77 

The  Heart. — The  movement  of  the  blood  through  the 
body,  in  order  that  all  organs  may  receive  from  it  their 
necessary  nourishment,  is  accomplished  by  the  heart. 

The  heart  is  an  irregularly  conical-shaped  organ,  com- 
posed of  involuntary  muscles.  It  is  situated  in  the  ante- 
rior part  of  the  chest,  and  hangs  free  in  an  envelope  called 
the  jpericardiuTYi. 

It  is  divided  by  an  impervious  partition  into  a  right  and 
left  half,  and  each  of  these  is  subdivided  by  a  cross-par- 
tition into  two  chambers,  communicating  with  each  other 
by  a  valve  in  the  dividing  wall.  The  upper  and  smaller  of 
these  divisions  are  known  as  the  right  and  left  auricles^ 
and  the  lower  and  larger  as  the  right  and  left  ventricles. 
Into  these  divisions  open  several  large  blood-vessels,  whose 
mouths  are  closed  with  valves  so  arranged  that  the  blood 
can  only  flow  i7ito  the  auricles  and  out  of  the  ventricles. 

The  blood  returning  from  the  extremities  of  the  body 
to  the  heart  enters  first  the  right  auricle,  a  (Fig.  4), 
through  two  large  veins,  the  vena  cava  anterior^  k,  coming 
from  the  anterior,  and  the  vena  cava  j}Osterior,  I,  from  the 
posterior  part  of  the  body.  The  auricle  then  contracts, 
and  the  blood,  being  prevented  from  returning  into  the 
blood-vessels  by  the  valves  at  their  mouths,  is  forced 
through  the  valve  in  the  partition  wall  into  the  right  ven- 
tricle, h.  This,  in  its  turn,  contracts,  and  the  blood,  pre- 
vented as  before  by  a  valve  from  turning  back  in  its 
course,  is  pressed  out  of  the  ventricle  through  the  pul- 
monary artery,  c,  which  divides  into  two  branches  leading 
to  the  right  and  left  lungs,  d,  d.  The  opening  of  this 
blood-vessel,  like  that  of  the  others,  is  provided  with  a 
valve,  which  prevents  the  return  of  the  blood.  The  blood, 
after  having  been  purified  in  the  lungs,  returns  to  the  Ift 
auricle,^,  through  the  pulmonary  veins,  represented  by  e. 


78  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Tlie  auricle  then  contracting,  sends  the  blood  into  the 
left  ventricle,  ^,  which,  in  its  turn,  contracts  powerfully 
and  expels  the  blood  into  one  large  vessel,  the  aorta^  h. 
The  aorta,  soon  after  leaving  the  heart,  divides  into  two 
branches,  the  anterior  aorta,  i,  leading  to  the  fore  part  of 
the  body,  and  the  jposterior  aorta,  j,  supplying  the  abdom- 
inal cavity  and  the  posterior  part  of  the  body. 

These  blood-vessels  repeatedly  subdivide  and  carry  the 
blood  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  to  be  brought  back  again  to  the 
right  side  of  the  heart  and  undergo  the  same  process  anew. 

The  sole  cause  of  the  motion  of  the  blood  is  tlie  power- 
ful contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  heart.  This  alter- 
nate contraction  and  relaxation  constitutes  the  beating  of 
the  heart,  and  the  sudden  impulse  thus  given  to  the  blood 
in  the  arteries  causes  the  beating  of  the  pulse. 

The  Arteries,  which  conduct  the  blood  from  the  lieai't 
to  the  various  organs  of  the  body,  are  tubes  with  strong, 
elastic,  and  contractile  walls,  to  withstand  the  force  with 
which  the  blood  is  pressed  into  them  by  the  heart.  They 
originate  in  the  aorta,  h  (Fig.  4),  which  receives  the 
blood  from  the  left  ventricle,  and  as  they  extend  farther 
and  farther  from  the  heart  throw  off  brandies  to  the  vari- 
ous organs,  become  smaller  and  smaller,  and  finally  end  in 
the  cajyillaries. 

The  Capillaries  are  exceedingly  fine  blood-vessels 
which  penetrate  all  parts  of  the  body  and  form  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  arteries  and  veins.  Their  walls 
are  thin  and  delicate,  and  through  them  the  nutritive  mat- 
ters of  the  blood  diffuse  out  into  the  tissues  to  repair  their 
w^aste,  while  the  worn-out  matters,  at  the  same  time,  dif- 
fuse into  the  blood.  Thus  all  parts  of  the  body  are  kept 
continually  bathed  in  a  solution  of  nutritive  matters. 

In  the  capillaries,  too,  the  oxygen  which  the  blood  has 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  79 

taken  up  in  the  lungs  unites  with  some  of  the  worn-out 
matters  and  burns  them,  producing  the  animal  heat.  This 
point  will  be  spoken  of  6 

more  fully  in  the  next 
section.  In  Fig.  4,  n 
represents  the  capillaries 
of  the  posterior  part  of 
the  body,  o  those  of  the 
stomach  and  intestines, 
t  those  of  the  kidneys, 
j>  those  of  the  liver, 
and  m  those  of  the  an- 
terior part  of  the  body. 
The  capillaries  gradually 
unite  together  into  larger  ^^«-  ^-csettegast.)  capiiianes. 

vessels,  the  veins,  which  convey  the  blood,  no  longer  suited 
to  nourish  the  body,  back  to  the  heart  and  lungs. 

The  Veins  are  tubular  vessels  somewhat  similar  to  the 
arteries,  but  with  weaker  and  non-elastic  walls,  the  pres- 
sure of  the  blood  on  them  being  less,  owing  to  the  inter- 
position of  the  capillaries  between  them  and  the  arteries 
and  to  the  fact  that  they  are  larger  than  the  latter. 

To  prevent  any  possible  flowing  back  of  the  blood,  the 
veins  are  provided  at  intervals  with  valves  which  permit 
the  blood  to  pass  toward  the  heart  but  not  in  the  opposite 
direction.  The  smaller  veins  unite  to  larger  ones,  and 
finally,  as  already  described,  empty  their  contents  through 
two  branches  into  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart.  From 
the  capillaries  of  the  intestines  the  blood  carrying  the  re- 
sorbed  nutrients  passes  through  the  portal  vehi^  s,  to  the 
liver,  J?,  there  passes  through  another  system  of  capillaries, 
and  then  rejoins  the  blood  from  the  extremities  through  tlie 
hepatic  vein,  u.     Into  the  branch,  l\  coming  from  the  head 


so  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

and  anterior  part  of  the  l)ody,  the  nutrients  which  are  resorb 
ed  by  the  lacteals  are  poured  just  before  it  enters  the  heart. 

The  passage  of  the  blood  from  the  left  heart  through 
the  body  and  back  to  the  right  heart,  is  called  the  greater 
or  systemic  circulation  ;  that  from  the  right  heart  through 
the  lungs  to  the  left  heart  the  pulnionary  circulation. 

The  appearance  of  the  blood  in  the  veins  and  arteries 
is  strikingly  different.  In  the  veins  it  has  a  dark,  cheriy- 
red  color,  but  after  it  has  passed  through  the  lungs  and  is 
sent  out  by  the  heart  into  the  arteries  it  has  a  bright, 
scarlet  color.  The  former  is  called  venous,  the  latter  arte- 
rial blood.  An  exception  to  this  rule,  that  the  arteries 
carry  bright-red  blood  and  the  veins  dark,  is  found  in  the 
pulmonary  circulation,  where,  of  course,  the  vessels  leadhig 
from  the  right  heart  to  the  lungs  carry  venous  blood,  and 
those  leading  from  the  lungs  to  the  left  heart,  arterial. 
Nevertheless,  the  general  nomenclature  is  adliered  to,  and 
the  former  are  called  arteries  and  the  latter  veins.  Arteries 
conduct  the  blood  from  the  heart,  veins  toward  it. 

§  2.  Respiration. 

Under  respiration  we  liere  include  not  only  the  act  of 
breathing,  but  all  those  chemical  changes  in  the  body  of  which 
that  act  is  partly  the  cause  and  partly  the  consequence. 

The  Lungs. — The  principal  organs  of  respiration  are 
the  lungs,  which,  with  the  heart,  occupy  the  cavity  of  the 
chest.  This  cavity  is  enclosed  on  the  sides  by  the  ribs, 
and  is  separated  from  the  abdominal  cavity,  containing  the 
digestive  organs,  by  a  strong,  arched,  muscular  partition, 
the  dla2>hragm.  The  diaphragm  is  convex  toward  the 
chest,  and  by  its  contraction  and  a  simultaneous  outward 
motion  of  the  ril)s,  caused  l)y  muscles  situated  between 
them,  the  size  of  the  chest  cavity   is  enlarged,  and   air 


MANUAL   Ot"   CATTLE-i^KEDtNG. 


81 


ruslies  into  the  lungs  by  virtue  of  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. This  constitutes  the  movement  of  inspiration,  or 
breathing  in.  The  reverse  motion,  which  immediately 
follows  and  expels  a  portion  of  the  air,  constitutes  the 
movement  of  expiration,  or  breathing  out. 

The  air  enters  the  lungs  through  the  trachea,  or  wind- 
pipe, from  the  mouth  and  nostrils.  The  trachea,  after 
reaching  the  chest,  divides  into  two  branches,  one  leading 
to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left  lung,  and  each  branch 
subdivides  asrain  and  a2;ain  into  a  multitude  of  fine  tubes, 
called  bronchial  tubes,  each  of 
which  finally  ends  in  an  ulti- 
mate lohule,  consisting  of  sev- 
eral minute  vesicles.  In  Fig. 
6,  G  represents  the  nltimate 
bronchial  tube,  h  h  the  vesicles, 
and  the  whole  mass  of  vesicles 
constitutes  an  ultimate  lobule,  a. 

The  vesicles  and  tubes  have 
elastic  walls  and  are  surrounded 
by  an  elastic  tissue,  so  that  the 
whole  lung  constitutes  a  spongy 
mass  which  expands  or  con- 
tracts with  the  motions  of  the 
chest,  causing  the  air  to  flow  into  and  out  of  all  parts  of  it. 
The  vesicles  are  also  surrounded  by  a  net-work  of  ex- 
tremely fine  capillary  blood-vessels,  through  which  the 
blood  sent  to  the  lungs  by  the  contraction  of  the  right 
ventricle  of  the  heart  must  pass,  and  the  walls  both  of 
the  capillaries  and  of  the  vesicles  are  very  thin  and  are 
permeable  to  gases. 

Exchange    of    Gases    in    the    Lungs. — The   venous 
blood,  as  it  comes  to  the  lungs,  is  rich  in  carbonic  acid, 


Fig.  0. — (Frey.)    Lung  Tissue. 


82  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

derived  from  tlie  burning  of  waste  products  in  tlie  capil« 
laries,  and  for  the  same  reason  is  poor  in  oxygen  ;  while 
the  air  in  the  vesicles  of  the  lungs,  on  the  contrary,  is  rich 
in  oxygen  and  contains  but  little  carbonic  acid.  Under 
these  circumstances  each  gas  moves  from  the  place  where 
it  is  most  abundant  to  the  place  where  there  is  a  deficiency 
of  it.  The  carbonic  acid  of  the  blood  diffuses  througli  the 
membrane  of  the  blood-vessels  into  the  air  of  the  vesicles  till 
the  latter  is  as  rich  in  that  gas  as  the  former,  while  the  oxy- 
gen, at  the  same  time,  passes  from  the  vesicles  to  the  blood. 

The  carbonic  acid  is  largely  contained  in  the  plasma  of 
the  blood,  and  simply  diffuses  into  the  air  in  the  lung 
vesicles  and  is  expelled  in  expiration,  but  for  the  taking 
up  of  oxygen  there  is  a  special  provision  in  the  coloring 
matters  of  the  coi'puscles.  The  venous  blood  contains 
both  hsemoglobin  and  oxyhsemoglobin.  AVhen  the  blood 
passes  through  the  lungs  the  haemoglobin  unites  with  the 
oxygen  which  dift\ises  into  it,  and  when  the  aeration  is 
properly  performed  is  all  converted  into  oxyhaemoglobin, 
which  gives  the  arterial  blood  its  bright-red  color.  The 
corpuscles  thus  act  as  vehicles  for  conveying  oxygen  from 
the  lungs  to  the  remotest  regions  of  the  body. 

In  the  capillaries  this  oxygen  is  given  up  again  in  part, 
and  haemoglobin  formed  once  more,  giving  to  the  venous 
blood  its  dark-red  color. 

If  by  any  means  respiration  is  stopped,  the  air  in  the 
lung  vesicles  speedily  becomes  so  charged  with  carbonic 
acid  and  exhausted  of  oxygen  that  the  exchange  of  gases 
with  the  blood  can  no  longer  go  on  ;  the  carbonic  acid  is  re- 
tained in  the  latter,  the  waste  products  of  the  tissues  are  not 
burned,  and  the  animal's  blood  is  poisoned — it  is  suffocated. 

If  its  supply  of  air,  however  plentiful,  contains  more 
than  a  certain  amount  of  carbonic  acid,  the  removal  of  this 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDINa.  83 

gas  from  the  blood  is  made  incomplete  or  suspended  en- 
tirely, and  substantially  the  same  results  ensue,  though 
more  slowly. 

Respiration  through  the  Skin. — In  addition  to  the 
exchange  of  gases  between  the  air  and  the  blood  which 
goes  on  in  the  lungs,  a  similar  process  takes  place,  though 
to  a  smaller  extent,  through  the  skin. 

The  true  skin,  underlying  the  cuticle  or  scarf-skin,  is 
penetrated  by  capillary  blood-vessels,  and  in  its  passage 
through  these  capillaries  the  blood  gives  off  some  carbonic 
acid  and  takes  up  some  oxygen  by  diffusion  through  the 
skin.  The  amounts  thus  given  off  and  taken  up  are  small 
compared  with  the  corresponding  amounts  in  the  lungs, 
but  they  are  still  not  inconsiderable.  The  skin  likewise 
acts,  by  means  of  its  sweat-glands,  as  a  channel  for  the  re- 
moval of  water  from  the  system.  Large  amounts  of  water 
are  continually  evaporating  from  the  skin  in  the  form  of 
the  "  insensible  perspiration,"  while  under  certain  circum- 
stances the  excretion  of  water  is  so  rapid  as  to  give  rise  to 
the  formation  of  visible  drops. 

The  distribution  of  oxygen  through  the  body  is 
accomplished  by  means  of  the  circulation.  Each  little  cor- 
puscle carries  its  load  of  oxygeft  fi'oni  the  lungs  through 
the  heart  and  arteries  into  the  capillaries. 

There,  as  we  have  seen,  the  substances  formed  in  the 
minute  cells  of  the  tissue  by  the  decomposition  of  their 
contents  under  the  influence  of  the  vital  force,  diffuse 
into  the  blood,  and  here  they  meet  the  oxygen  con- 
tained in  the  corpuscles  and  unite  with  it — are  burned, 
producing  the  aniinal  heat.  Innumerable  intermediate 
products  are  formed  in  this  process,  but  the  final  result 
is  in  all  cases  the  same.  All  the  non-nitrogenous  sub- 
stances yield  carbonic   acid  and  water;   the  nitrogenous 


84  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

ones  the  same  substances,  and  in  addition  urea,  the  char- 
acteristic ingredient  of  the  urine.  Urea  is  a  crystallizable 
body  of  comparatively  simple  composition,  which,  together 
with  small  amounts  of  other  substances,  contains  all  the 
nitrogen  and  part  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  the 
albuminoids  from  which  it  is  derived.  In  the  urine  of 
herbivorous  animals  it  is,  in  part,  replaced  by  Id^uric 
acid.  All  these  oxidations  take  place  in  the  cells  and 
capillaries  of  the  body,  and  it  is  there,  consequently,  and 
not,  as  is  sometimes  stated,  in  the  lungs,  that  the  animal 
heat  is  produced. 

The  quantity  of  oxygen  which  passes  into  the 
blood  is  by  no  means  determined  by  the  depth  and  fre- 
quency of  the  inspirations,  but  by  the  amount  needed  in 
the  hody  ;  that  is,  in  the  first  place,  by  the  rapidity  of  the 
decomposition  of  substances  in  the  blood  and  tissues,  as 
well  as,  m  the  second  place,  by  the  nmnber  and  quality  of 
the  blood  coi-puscles. 

In  all  parts  of  the  living  body  a  continual  decomposi- 
tion of  its  materials  is  going  on,  and  all  manifestations  of 
life  are  intimately  related  to  this  metamorphosis  of  the 
materials  of  the  living  organism. 

This  decomposition,  as  has  been  already  pointed  out, 
consists,  in  the  main,  in  a  splitting  up  of  complex  com- 
pounds into  simpler  ones,  accompanied  by  a  Liberation 
of  energy,  which  manifests  itself  in  various  ways.  The 
processes  take  place  according  to  fixed  laws  and  at  first  in- 
dependently of  oxygen,  but  the  products  of  the  decomposi- 
tion unite  with  the  oxygen  of  the  blood  and  regulate  the 
amount  of  this  substance  taken  up  in  respiration.  The 
splitting  up  of  substances  in  the  body  to  form  simpler 
compounds  must  be  regarded  as  the  primary  process  and 
the  taking  up  of  oxygen  as  the  secondary,  although  it  was 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEBING.  85 

formerly  believed  that,  inversely,  the  former  was  deter- 
mined by  the  latter.  K,  by  an  increased  supply  of  food 
or  by  violent  muscular  exertion,  this  splitting  up  of  the 
materials  of  the  body  is  increased  and  facilitated,  then, 
secondarily,  more  oxygen  will  be  taken  up,  ui  order  that 
the  resulting  products  may  be  oxidized. 

Storing  up  of  Oxygen. — We  have  hitherto,  for  con- 
venience, spoken  as  if  the  oxygen  taken  up  by  the  blood 
united  at  once  in  the  capillaries  with  the  products  of  tis- 
sue change. 

Numerous  experiments  by  Pettenkofer  and  Yoit,*  at 
Munich,  and  by  Henneberg,f  at  the  Weende  Experiment 
Station,  have,  however,  shown  that  the  animal  body  has 
the  power  of  storing  up  within  itself  a  considerable  amount 
of  oxygen,  and  that  some  time  may  elapse  after  oxygen  is 
taken  up  into  the  blood  before  it  is  excreted  in  combina- 
tion with  carbon  and  hydrogen.  The  following  experi- 
ment by  Pettenkofer  and  Yoit,  upon  a  healthy  man  on  an 
average  diet,  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  point.  The  ex- 
periment was  divided  into  two  parts,  the  time  from  6  a.m. 
to  6  P.M.  being  designated  as  day  and  from  6  p.m.  to  6 
A.M.  as  night. 

If  fi-om  the  amount  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and 
nitrogen,  contained  in  the  food  eaten,  we  sul)tract  the 
amounts  excreted  in  organic  combination  in  the  solid  and 
liquid  excrements,  and  also  the  amounts  laid  up  in  the 
body  in  the  form  of  fat,  etc.,  the  remainders  will  show 
how  much  of  each  element  must  have  been  burned  to  car- 
bonic acid  and  water  in  the  body.  This  known,  we  can 
easily  calculate  the  amount  of  oxygen  necessary  for  the 
process,  and  compare  it  with  the  amount  actually  taken  up 

*  Zeit.  f.  Biologie,  II.,  552. 

f  Neue  Beitrage,  etc.,  1871,  p.  245. 


86 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


from  the  air,  as  determined  by  the  metliod  described  in 
a  subsequent  chapter.  In  this  experiment  the  following 
results  were  obtained : 

DAY. 


In  food. 

In 
excreta. 

In  fat 

formed  in 

body. 

Remain 

to  be 
oxidized. 

Oxygen 
required. 

240.15 

195.40 

1455.79 

10.12 

7.94 

1.71 

8.64 

10.12 

86.91 

13.53 

13.10 

0.00 

145.30 

180.16 

1434.05 

0.00 

387.46 

1441.28 

Oxvcren 

Nitrogen 

1828.74 
Already  present 1434.05 

Needed  from  without 394.69 

Actually  taken  up  from  air 234. 70 

Difference —159.99 


NIGHT. 


In  food. 

In 

excreta. 

In  fat 

lost 

by  body. 

Remain 

to  be 
oxidized. 

Oxygen 
required. 

Carbon 

75.35 

75.50 

548.11 

7.24 

19.16 
3.19 

12.26 
7.24 

47.11 
7.33 
7.10 
0.00 

103.30 

79.64 

542.95 

0.00 

275.50 

Hvdrosren 

637.12 

Oxvsren 

Nitrogen 



Already  present 

Needed  from  without 

Actually  taken  up  from  air. 


912.62 
542.95 

369.67 
474.30 


Difference , +104.63 

Difference  for  24  hours — 55.36 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  87 

Fn  the  night-half  of  the  experiment,  there  was  taken  in- 
U-  the  system  through  the  hmgs  104.63  grms.  of  oxygen 
more  than  was  used  during  that  time  in  oxidizing  food 
substances  and  body-fat,  while  in  the  day -half  of  the  ex- 
periment more  oxygen  was  thus  used  than  was  supplied 
from  without,  the  liemainder  (159.99  grms.)  evidently  be- 
ing drawn  from  a  supply  previously  laid  up  in  the  bodv. 

In  the  earlier  experiments  of  both  Pettenkof  er  and  Yoit 
and  Henneberg,  the  storing  up  of  oxygen  took  place 
chiefly,  as  in  this  case,  in  the  night,  but  further  investiga- 
tions showed  that  this  was  by  no  means  always  the  case. 
It  would  seem,  from  these  experiments,  as  if  the  healthy 
animal  body  were  constantly  either  storing  up  or  giving 
off  oxygen,  the  two  processes,  as  a  rule,  nearly  balancing 
each  other  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours,  while  com- 
plete equilibrium  is  seldom  reached  in  that  time.  The 
significance  of  this  fact  we  shall  consider  later. 

Decompositions  of  the  Nutrients  in  the  Body. — 
The  albuminoids  of  the  food  and  tissues  are  believed  to 
split  up,  by  numerous  intermediate  steps,  into  urea  and 
fat.^  In  the  herbivora  there  are  also  formed  varying 
quantities  of  hijpjpuric  acid,  according  to  the  fodder  and 
the  species  of  animal,  but  the  latter  always  represents  a 
far  smaller  part  of  the  decomposed  albuminoids  than  the 
urea,  and  often  disappears  almost  completely  from  the  list 
of  the  substances  formed  and  excreted  as  the  result  of 
tissue-change. 

The  urea  is  rapidly  taken  up  by  the  blood,  separated 
from  it  again  in  the  kidneys,  and  excreted  in  the  urine ;  it 
can  and  ought  never  to  be  stored  up  in  the  healthy  organ- 
ism. In  the  normal  blood  and  in  the  tissues  are  found 
only  inconsiderable  traces  of  it,  although  the  total  quan- 

*  See  the  chapter  on  the  "  Formation  of  Fat." 


88  MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

titj  wliicli  is  formed  daily  in  the  body  of  a  fattening  steei 
may  amount  to  a  pound  or  more. 

The  nitrogen  contained  in  100  parts  of  water-free  pro- 
tein can  be  separated  from  it  in  the  form  of  33.5  parts  of 
urea.  Tlie  remainder  of  the  protein,  66.5  parts,  after 
taking  up  and  uniting  with  12.3  parts  of  water,  contains 
the  elements  for  the  formation  of  51.4  parts  of  fat  and 
27.4  parts  of  carbonic  acid. 

TTie  /at,  whether  formed  from  the  albuminoids  or  con 
tained  as  such  in  the  food,  is,  according  to  circumstances, 
either  deposited  in  the  body  of  the  animal,  finds  appli- 
cation in  the  production  of  milk,  or  undergoes  a  complete 
oxidation  in  the  respiratory  process,  yielding  carbonic  acid 
and  water.  The  fat  producible  from  the  albuminoids  must 
always  be  added  to  that  which  is  contained,  ready  formed, 
in  the  fodder  and  resorbed  from  the  digestive  apparatus, 
in  estimating  the  results  of  a  particular  method  of  feed- 
ing. It  is,  however,  to  be  observed  that,  according  to  the 
results  of  late  researches,  the  fat  formed  in  the  body  out 
of  albuminoids  appears  to  unite  more  readily  with  oxygen 
— that  is,  to  burn  easier — than  the  ready  formed  fat  taken 
in  the  food,  and  this  again  easier  than  that  which  is  already 
deposited  in  the  fat- tissues. 

The  carhhydrates  are  represented  in  the  body  chiefly  by 
sugar,  all  the  other  bodies  of  the  group  being  converted 
into  this  substance  during  digestion,  so  far  as  they  are  not 
further  decomposed.  The  food  of  all  herbivorous  animals 
contains  large  quantities  of  carhhydrates,  an  ox,  for  ex- 
ample, often  resorbing  into  his  blood  from  twelve  to 
eighteen  pounds  of  sugar  in  twenty-four  hours,  yet  the 
blood,  in  its  normal  state,  never  contains  more  than  minute 
traces  of  this  substance,  and  it  is  never  stored  up  as  such 
in  the  body. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  89 

The  cause  of  the  comparatively  small  quantity  of  sugar 
foimd  in  the  body,  notwithstanding  the  large  amounts 
taken  into  the  blood,  lies  partly  in  the  fact  that  the  pro- 
cess of  resorption  is  a  gradual  one,  extending  over  a  con- 
siderable time,  the  sugar,  after  it  passes  into  the  cu'cula- 
tion,  being  oxidized  with  comparative  rapidity,  and  partly, 
as  it  would  appear,  in  the  conversion  of  the  resorbed  sugar 
into  an  insoluble  form  by  the  liver. 

Glycogen. — The  liver,  as  long  as  it  is  in  a  normal  state, 
contams  a  substance  belonging  to  the  carbhydrate  group, 
and  known  as  glycogen^  in  quantities  varying  according  to 
the  diet  of  the  animal. 

It  may  be  extracted  fi-om  the  liver  by  hot  water,  and 
when  purified  forms  a  white,  meal-like,  amorphous  pow- 
der, tasteless  and  odorless.  In  cold  water  it  swells  up,  and 
on  warming  dissolves  to  an  opalescent  fluid.  It  is  insolu- 
ble in  alcohol  and  ether,  and  is  colored  dark-red  by  iodine. 
All  those  agents  which  convert  starch  and  dextrine  into 
sugar  produce  the  same  effect  upon  glycogen.  It  rotates 
the  plane  of  polarized  light  strongly  to  the  right,  but  does 
not  reduce  alkaline  copper  solution.  It  w^ll  thus  be  seen 
that  it  stands  intermediate  between  starch  and  dextrine. 
Its  composition  is  the  same  as  that  of  starch. 

Glycogenic  Function  of  the  Liver. — K  the  dead 
liver,  after  removal  from  the  body,  be  washed  out  b}' 
water  injected  through  the  portal  vein  till  all  sugar  is  re- 
moved, and  if  then,  after  standing  for  a  time,  the  washing 
be  renewed,  the  first  portions  of  water  that  pass  contain 
sugar.  The  same  process  may  be  repeated  several  times. 
*'  If  the  liver  of  any  animal  be  kept  for  a  considerable 
time  before  cooking,  the  amount  of  sugar  which  accumu- 
lates in  its  substance  is  so  large  as  to  be  easily  detected  by 
the  taste.     The  liver  is  decidedly  sweets — (J.  Le  Conte.) 


90  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

The  source  of  the  sugar  in  these  cases  is  the  glycogen  of 
the  Hver,  which,  by  some  not  well  understood  chemical 
action,  is  converted  into  sugar. 

The  same  jprocess  takes  jplace  in  the  livhig  hody.  The 
blood  in  the  portal  vein  of  flesh -fed  animals  contains 
no  sugar,  but  the  same  blood  in  the  hepatic  vein,  after 
having  passed  through  the  liver,  contains  a  notable  quan- 
tity of  this  substance,  doubtless  derived  from  the  glycogen 
of  the  liver. 

These  facts  were  discovered  by  Claude  Bernard  in  1853, 
and  are  undisputed,  but  the  source  of  the  glycogen  of  the 
liver,  and  its  physiological  significance,  are  questions  upon 
which  there  is  a  diversity  of  opinion.  In  w^hat  follows 
we  shall  endeavor  to  present  in  outline  that  view  which 
seems,  on  the  whole,  most  probable,  without,  however, 
treating  the  matter  as  one  that  is  finally  decided. 

We  have  already  called  attention  to  the  great  quantity 
of  sugar  that  may  be-  taken  into  the  circulation  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours.  This  sugar  is  largely  taken  up  by 
the  capillariesi  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  passes 
by  the  portal  vein  into  the  liver,  while  in  the  general  cir- 
culation only  traces  of  sugar  are  found. 

Putting  these  facts  together,  the  conclusion  seems  almost 
unavoidable  that  the  liver  has  the  power  of  converting 
sugar  into  the  insoluble  glycogen  and  storing  it  up,  to  be 
gradually  reconverted  into  sugar  as  the  needs  of  the  organ- 
ism demand.  In  other  words,  the  glycogen  of  the  liver  is 
a  reserve  of  carhhydrates. 

The  functions  of  the  carbhydrates  in  the  body  are,  as 
yet,  but  imperfectly  understood,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  they  play  an  important  part  in  the  animal  economy. 
According  to  some,  the  oxidation  of  these  substances  and 
of  fat  furnishes  a  large  share  of  the  nniscular  and  other 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  91 

force  exerted  hj  the  body.  This  does  not  appear  to  be 
fully  established,  but  even  if  we  do  not  hold  this  view, 
we  shall  see,  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  that  there  is  strong 
reason  to  believe  that  non-nitrogenous  substances  play  an 
important  part  in  the  preparation  of  the  muscles  for  the 
exertion  of  force,  and  that  a  constant  supply  of  them  in 
the  blood  is  an  important  condition  of  healthy  activity. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  shown  that  a  large  quantity 
of  sugar  in  the  blood  is  very  hurtful. 

The  office  of  the  liver  seems  to  be  to  arrest  the  sugar  on 
its  way  from  the  portal  capillaries  and,  by  converting  it 
into  glycogen,  to  prevent  an  injurious  accumulation  of  it 
in  the  blood,  while  the  glycogen,  by  its  gradual  re-conver- 
sion into  sugar,  yields  a  continual  supply  of  this  substance. 

Glycogen  may  be  formed  from  Protein. — If  a  sup- 
ply of  sugar  to  the  blood  is  important  or  necessary,  we 
should  expect  to  find  some  provision  for  it  in  those  animals 
which  take  none  in  their  food — i.  e.,  the  ca/rnivo7'a. 

This  is,  in  fact,  the  case.  The  liver  has  the  power  to 
form  glycogen  from  albuminoids,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  that  substance  is  formed  in  animals  fed  entirely  on 
albuminoids.  This  being  so,  there  is  no  evident  reason 
why  the  same  formation  of  glycogen  from  protein  may 
not  take  place  in  all  animals.  Indeed  some  authorities 
hold  that  it  does,  and  that  all  the  albuminoids  destroyed 
in  the  body  are  first  decomposed  in  the  liver  into  glycogen, 
and  urea  and  similar  products. 

It  will  be  shown  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  however,  that 
under  some  circumstances  fat  may  be  formed  from  the 
protein  of  the  food  and  stored  up  in  the  body,  and  Yoit 
and  his  followers  hold  that  the  first  decomposition  of  pro- 
tein in  the  body  yields  fat  and  not  glycogen.  However 
this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  a  j)art  of  the  protein  may 


92  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

be  used  in  fat  formation,  and  as  certain  that  part  of  it  maj' 
also  be  used  by  the  liver  as  a  source  of  glycogen. 

Protein  as  the  Sole  Source  of  Glycogen. — The  views 
of  the  glycogenic  function  of  the  liver  just  stated,  though 
widely  accepted,  are  not  undisputed.  Many  good  authori- 
ties hold  that  under  all  circumstances  protein  is  the  source 
whence  glycogen  is  formed.  According  to  this  view,  the 
carbhydrates  of  the  food  are  oxidized  in  place  of  the  non- 
nitrogenous  products  of  the  decomposition  of  protein,  and 
protect  the  latter,  so  that  they  are,  in  part  at  least,  de- 
posited in  the  liver  in  the  form  of  glycogen,  to  be  drawn 
on  when  the  supply  of  carbhydrates  in  the  food  is  insuffi- 
cient. 

That  is,  the  liver  has  the  power  of  preparing  carbliy- 
drate  material  from  protein  and  storing  it  up  in  an  insol- 
uble form  until  such  time  as  it  is  needed.  , 

Which  of  these  two  theories  is  true,  or  whether  the 
truth  lies  between  the  two,  is  as  yet  undecided,  nor  is  a 
discussion  of  the  comparative  probability  of  the  two  views 
in  place  here. 

Oxidations  in  the  Body  are  Gradual — In  the  fore- 
going paragraphs  we  have,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity, 
spoken  as  if  the  processes  of  decomposition  and  oxidation 
were  very  simple  and  immediate — as  if  sugar  were  burned 
directly  to  carbonic  acid  and  water,  protein  split  up  at  once 
into  fat  and  urea,  etc.  This  is  far  from  being  the  case. 
While  the  final  result  is  as  if  the  oxidations  took  place  in 
the  way  spoken  of,  and  while  we  are  therefore  justified  in 
so  speaking  when  we  look  at  the  chemical  changes  in  the 
body  as  a  whole,  it  must  always  be  with  the  understanding 
that  the  changes  which  actually  take  place  are  very  nu- 
merous and  complicated,  and  that  both  their  nature  and 
location  are  largely  hidden  from  us.     The  simple  fact  that 


MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  93 

oxygen,  after  it  is  taken  into  the  blood,  remains  for  a  time 
in  the  system,  suffices  to  show  that  the  chemical  phenomena 
in  the  body  differ  essentially  from  those  outside  it,  and 
this  is  confirmed  by  the  little  we  do  know  of  the  processes 
themselves  and  by  the  intermediate  products,  numbered  by 
hundreds,  which  have  been  already  discovered. 

Fortunately,  however,  for  the  purposes  of  cattle -feeding 
we  need  only  to  know  the  final  results  of  all  these  changes, 
and  these  we  have  indicated  above,  and  shall  presently  con 
sider  more  in  detail. 

§  3.  Excretion. 

As  the  result  of  the  continued  decompositions  and  alter- 
ations  going  on  in  the  body,  we  have  a  constant  accumula- 
tion of  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  urea  and  other  nitro- 
genous products  in  the  blood. 

The  carbonic  acid  and  urea  are  poisonous  if  allowed  to 
accumulate  in  the  system,  and  the  water  would  produce 
injurious  effects  by  diluting  the  blood,  and  means  are 
therefore  provided  for  the  removal  of  these  substances 
from  the  body. 

The  Urine. — In  its  course  through  the  posterior  part 
of  the  body  the  blood  passes  through  the  kidneys,  two 
bean-shaped  organs,  in  which  the  urea  and  other  nitro- 
genous substances  coming  from  the  decomposition  of  the 
protein  of  the  body  are  removed  from  it.  The  blood  also 
parts  here  with  some  of  its  water,  and  the  excreted  liquid, 
the  urine,  passes  from  the  kidneys  to  the  bladder  and  is 
thence  expelled  from  the  body  at  intervals. 

Besides  urea,  the  urine  of  the  herbivora  contains,  as  has 
been  already  noted,  hipjpuric  acid,  in  which  form  a  vary- 
ing but  small  proportion  of  nitrogen  is  excreted  by  these 
animals.     In  the  carnivora  its  place  is  taken  by  uric  acid, 


94  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDIKG. 

also  a  nitrogenous  substance.  The  imne  likewise  contains 
traces  of  various  other  bodies,  nitrogenous  and  non-nitro- 
genous, which,  on  account  of  their  small  quantity,  are  of  no 
special  importance  here. 

Excretion  of  Nitrogen. — In  the  nitrogenous  substan- 
ces of  the  urine  is  contained  all  the  nitrogen  of  the  albu- 
minoids decomposed  in  the  bodj.  This  is  a  most  impor- 
tant fact,  and  one  upon  which  a  large  part  of  the  theory 
of  feeding  depends,  and  consequently  it  is  desirable  to 
examine  somewhat  in  detail  the  eyidence  upon  which  it 
rests,  particularly  since  its  truth  is  still  disputed  by  some 
authors. 

The  question  is,  whether  the  "  sensible  "  excretions,  that 
is,  urine  and  dung,  contain  all  the  nitrogen  which  leaves 
the  body,  or  whether  any  considerable  portion  of  it  is  ex- 
creted in  gaseous  form  from  lungs  and  skin. 

Since,  unfortunately,  we  have  no  accurate  means  of  de- 
termining directly  whether  free  gaseous  nitrogen  is  thus 
exhaled,  we  are  obliged  to  approach  the  subject  in  an  in- 
direct way,  and  to  determine  whether,  when  no  gain  of 
flesh  is  made  by  the  animal,  all  the  nitrogen  of  the  food 
reappears  in  the  excreta. 

The  earlier  experiments  on  this  subject  showed,  almost 
without  exception,  a  deficit  of  nitrogen  in  the  excrements, 
seldom  an  excess.  Boussingault  found,  with  a  horse,  a  de- 
ficit of  2-i  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  food ;  with  a 
milk-cow,  13  per  cent. ;  with  hogs,  37  and  55  per  cent.; 
and  with  a  turtle-dove,  34  and  36  per  cent.  Other  ob- 
servers also  obtained  a  similar  deficit,  though  quite  vari- 
able in  amount. 

The  extensive  respiration  experiments  of  Regnault  and 
Heiset  sometimes  showed  a  slight  excretion  of  gaseous 
nitrogen  and  sometimes  a  slight  absorption  of  that  sub- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  95 

stance,  but  the  differences  observed  by  them  were  far 
smaller  than  those  obtained  by  most  other  observers. 

Bidder  and  Schmidt  *  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to 
express  the  opinion  that  nitrogen  leaves  the  body  only  in 
the  visible  excretions ;  but  their  experiments  were  too  few 
in  number  to  prove  the  point,  and  shortly  afterward  Bis- 
choff  f  published  the  results,  of  numerous  experiments  on 
dogs,  in  which  he  observed  a  considerable  deficit,  averag- 
ing 30  per  cent.  Iloppe-Seyler  also  found  a  deficit  of  15 
per  cent,  in  an  experiment  in  which  a  dog  was  fed  for 
seven  days  exclusively  on  meat. 

Voit's  Experiments. — Karl  Yoit,  in  Munich,  was  the 
first  to  furnish  decisive  proof  that  the  urine  and  dung  are 
the  sole  channels  by  which  nitrogen  leaves  the  body,  and 
that  the  nitrogen  of  the  urine  is  an  accurate  measure  of 
the  amount  of  nitrogenous  matters  decomposed  in  the  body. 

He  showed,  in  his  "  PhysiologisGh-cheQnische  Untersuch- 
ungeiij''  published  in  1857,  that  the  large  deficit  of  nitrogen 
observed  previously  was  due  to  faulty  methods  of  experi- 
ment, and  found  in  his  own  experiments  either  an  equal- 
ity between  the  nitrogen  of  food  and  excrements  or  dif- 
ferences which  were  explained  very  simply  by  the  gain  or 
loss  of  flesh  by  the  animal  under  experiment. 

Since  that  time  a  vast  number  of  similar  experiments, 
chiefly  on  dogs,  have  been  made  in  the  Physiological  Insti- 
tute at  Munich  by  Yoit,  in  conjunction  with  Bischoff  and 
later  with  v.  Pettenkofer,  which  have  fully  confirmed  the 
results  of  the  earlier  ones  and  have  been  of  the  greatest 
service  in  elucidating  the  laws  of  the  formation  of  flesh  in 
the  animal  body.    The  following  are  a  few  of  the  results :  J 

*  "  Die  Verdauungssafte  u.  der  Stoffwechsel,"  1853. 
f  "  Der  HarnstofiE  als  Mass  des  Stoffwechsels,"  1853. 
}  Wolff :  "Ernahrung  Landw.  Nutzthiere,"  p.  249. 


96 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Duration  of 

Food. 

NiTBOGEN. 

DlFFKRENCE. 

experiments. 
Days; 

In  food. 
Grms. 

In  excrements. 
Grms. 

Grms. 

Per  cent. 

49 

6 

9 

6 

12 

14 

23 

8 

20 

58 

3 

8 

2499.0 
306.0 
459.0 
306.0 
612.0 
714.0 

1173.0 
544.0 
340.0 
986.0 
153.0 
408.0 

2525.6 
308.5 
460.7 
307.2 
611.9 
718.5 

1176.9 
544.3 
335.2 
982.8 
152.6 
408.3 

+  26.6 
+2.5 
+1.7 
+  1.2 
-0.1 
+4.5 
+3.9 
+  0.3 
-4.8 
-3.2 
-0.4 
+  0.3 

1.0 

0.7 
0.4 
0.4 
0.0 
0.6 
0.3 
0.1 
1.4 
0.3 
0.2 
0.07 

That  this  equilibrium  between  the  excreted  and  ingested 
nitrogen  was  not  a  chance  occurrence  in  a  single  animal,  is 
shown  bj  the  fact  that  it  was  confirmed  in  experiments 
on  ^ve  different  dogs. 

Experiments  on  other  animals  have  not  been  lacking. 
Ranke  and  Pettenkofer  &  Yoit  have  shown  that  the 
same  fact  is  true  of  men,  and  an  interesting  experiment 
was  made  by  Yoit  on  a  pigeon,  an  animal  with  which 
Boussingault  found  a  deficit  of  3-4  and  36  per  cent.  Yoit 
fed  a  full-grown  pigeon  for  124  days  with  peas,  of  w^hich 
it  consumed  3,132.4  grms.  (dry  weight),  while  its  own 
weight  rose  from  371  grms.  to  444:  grms.  The  3,132.4 
grms.  of  peas  contained  149.4  grms.  of  nitrogen,  and  in 
the  excrements  145.9  grms.  were  recovered,  showing  a 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  97 

loss  of  2.3  per  cent.  In  this  experiment  the  weight  of 
the  food  was  more  than  eight  times  that  of  the  pigeon, 
and  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  food  ten  times  that  in 
the  aniniaL  Taking  into  account,  also,  the  small  weight 
of  the  animal  and  the  duration  of  the  experiment,  the  hy- 
pothesis of  any  appreciable  excretion  of  gaseous  nitrogen 
becomes  untenable.  The  small  deficit  observed  is  largely 
explained  by  the  fact  that  the  animal  gained  73  grms. 
during  the  experiment,  and  was  fomid,  when  killed,  to  be 
rich  in  flesh. 

Experiments  on  Domestic  Animals.— The  impor- 
tance of  Yoit's  observations  for  the  founding  of  a  ra- 
tional theory  of  feeding,  speedily  led  to  experiments  on 
agricultural  animals,  which  showed  that,  as  was  to  be  ex- 
pected, the  same  law  holds  good  for  them.  A  large  num- 
ber of  experiments,  in  which  various  domestic  animals 
have  received  a  fodder  which  experience  has  shown  to  be 
sufficient  to  keep  them  in  unaltered  condition  for  long 
periods,  have  shown  that  under  these  circumstances  all  the 
nitrogen  of  the  fodder  reappears  in  the  excrements. 

Oxen, — The  earliest  observations  were  those  of  Ilenne- 
berg,  at  the  Weende  Experiment  Station,  on  oxen.  His 
first  experiments,  in  1858  to  1859  and  1860  to  1861,  agreed 
in  the  main  with  Yoit's  results,  but,  owing  to  the  com- 
parative imperfection  of  the  experimental  methods  then 
available,  considerable  variations  were  found  in  particular 
cases.  Further  experiments,  however,  made  in  1865,*  with 
improved  methods  and  apparatus,  showed  that  these  varia- 
tions were  due  to  experimental  errors,  and  most  abun- 
dantly confirmed  Yoit's  observations,  as  the  following 
results  show: 

*  "Neue  Beitrage  zur  Begriindung  einer  Rationellen  Fiitterung  der 
Wiederkauer,"  p.  380. 
5 


98 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


No.  of 
Bxperiment. 

Weight  of 

animal. 

Lbs. 

NiTBOGBN    PER    DAY. 

DiFFEBENCE. 

In  food. 
Grms. 

In  excrement. 
Grms. 

Grms. 

Per  cent. 

1 

2 

3 

5 

6 

1,403 

u 
(( 

1,529 

u 

135.5 
131.0 
131.0 
161.5 
160.0 

135.0 

132.0 
127.5 
167.5 
156.5 

-0.5 
+  1.0 
-3.5 
+  6.0 
-3.5 

0.4 
0.8 
2.7 
3.7 
2.2 

Grou\'en  "^  also  found  approximately  an  equilibrium  be- 
tween the  nitrogen  of  the  food  and  of  the  excrements  of 
oxen  fed  on  clover  hay.  A  ration  of  l-i.3  lbs.  of  clover 
hay  per  day  and  head  gave  the  following  results : 


NiTBOGEN  IN 

DiFFEBENCE. 

Experiment. 

Food. 
Grms. 

Excrements. 
Grms. 

Grms. 

Per  cent. 

8  days 

10  days 

1,087.79 
1,506.42 

1,153.67 
1,463.63 

+65.88 
-42.79 

6.0 

2.8 

Milk  cows. — Experiments  on  five  different  cows  in  three 
different  places — viz.,  in  Munich,  by  Yoit,t  at  the  Ex- 
periment Station  at  Mockern,  by  G.  Kiihn,  :f  and  at 
the  Hohenheim   Experiment  Station,  by  E.  v.  "Wolff  §  — 


*  Zweiter  Bericht  liber  die  Versuchs- Station  Salzmiinde,  1864,  p.  122. 

f  Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologie,  1869,  p.  118. 

^Landw.  Versuchs- Stationen,  XIL,  450. 

§  Die  Versucksstation  Hohenheim,  1870,  p.  49. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


09 


have  shown  that  the  visible  excrements  of  these  ani- 
mals also  contain  all  the  nitrogen  which  leaves  the 
body. 

The  following  table  gives  a  resume  of  all  the  results, 
expressed  in  grammes  per  day  and  head : 


Length  of 
feeding. 

Nitrogen  in 

Difference. 

Place. 

Food. 
Grms. 

Excre- 
ments. * 
Grms. 

Grms. 

Per  cent. 

Munich 

6  days. 

241.5 

238.53 

-2.97 

1.2 

Mockern. .. 

20  to  25  days. 

120.5 

122.0 

4-1.5 

1.2 

u 

121.0 

117.5 

-3.5 

2.9 

i( 

117.4 

113.1 

-4.3 

3.6 

it 

114.5 

120.0 

+5.5 

4.8 

(( 

114.8 

108.4 

-6.4 

5.6 

(( 

121.4 

113.2 

-8.2 

6.7 

Hobenheim 

Nearly  6  weeks. 

165.2 

164.5 

-0.7 

0.4 

it 

i( 

169.1 

169.8 

+0.7 

0.4 

Sheep. — In  case  of  sheep,  we  have  to  take  into  account, 
besides  the  excrements,  the  growth  of  the  wool.  The  fol- 
lowing results,  selected  from  those  obtained  by  Marcker 
and  E.  Schulze  f  in  a  large  number  of  experiments  at 
the  Weende  Experiment  Station,  show  that  when  this  is 
done  the  same  law  holds  with  sheep  as  with  other 
animals. 


*  Including  the  milk. 

t  Jour.  f.  Landw.,  1870,  p.  301. 


100 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


No.  of 

Animal. 

Live 

weight. 

Lbs. 

Nitrogen  of 

fodder 

per  day. 

Grms. 

Nitrogen  ex- 
creted 
per  day. 
Grms. 

DIFFERBNCE. 

Grms. 

Per  cent. 

Ill 

94.7 
104.0 
100.4 
122.1 
103.6 
135.5 
109.5 

17.81 
17.26 
14.40 
16.34 
14.76 
25.37 
19.52 

16.93 
16.12 
14.16 
17.46 
15.15 
25.20 
19.85 

-0.88 
-1.14 
-0.24 
+1.12 
+0.39 
-0.17 
+0.33 

4  9 

I 

6  6 

m.&IV.(av) 

i:&n.    " 

UL  &IV.  " 

II 

1.6 
6.8 
2.6 
0.7 

Ill 

1  7 

Goats. — The  following  experiments,  made  by  Stoh- 
mann  *  at  the  Halle  Experiment  Station,  show  that  in 
the  goat  also  the  excretion  of  nitrogen  takes  place  in  the 
visible  excreta,  and  that  no  considerable  excretion  of  gase- 
ous niti'ogen  can  occm- : 


Live 

weight. 

Lbs. 

NiTBOGEN  PKB  DAT. 

Difference. 

No.  of  the 
Animal. 

In  fodder. 
Grms. 

In  excrements 

and  milk. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Per  cent. 

I 

II 

I 

IL 

I 

n 

I 

81.1 

63.5 
81.4 
62.2 
85.3 
66.0 
83.4 

23.3 
23.0 
21.1 
21.1 
23.9 
23.7 
24.8 

23.0 
22.2 
21.5 
21.4 
23.5 
23.6 
24.3 

-0.3 

-0.8 
+0.4 
+  0.3 
-0.4 
-0.1 
-0.3 

1.3 
3.5 
1.9 
1.4 
1.9 
0.5 
1.4 

Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologie,  1870,  p.  204. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  101 

For  the  sake  of  brevity,  no  description  of  the  fodder  has 
been  given  in  any  of  the  above  experiments.  It  is  suffi- 
cient to  say  that  it  was  found  by  experience  to  be  just 
sufficient  to  maintain  the  animals,  and  that  the  latter  did 
not  appreciably  gain  or  lose  during  the  trials.  The  duration 
of  the  feeding,  when  given,  refers  in  most  cases  to  the 
total  length  of  time  dui-ing  which  the  fodder  was  used ; 
the  actual  investigation  of  dung  and  urine  usually  ex- 
tended over  7  to  10  days. 

Investigations  of  the  Respiratory  Products. — The 
experiments  which  we  have  already  described  have  shown 
conclusively  that  no  appreciable  excretion  of  nitrogen  takes 
place  through  limgs  and  skin,  and  direct  investigations  of 
the  respiratory  products  have  only  confirmed  this  fact. 
It  is  true  that  we  have  no  means  of  accurately  determining 
how  much  free  nitrogen  is  exhaled,  but  any  ammonia  that 
may  pass  off  in  this  way  can  be  very  exactly  determined. 
Such  experiments  have  been  executed,  and  have  all  shown 
that  only  minute  quantities  of  this  gas  are  excreted. 
Thus  Grouven,^  in  experiments  on  twenty-nine  different 
individuals,  obtained  the  following  amounts  of  ammonia 
per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight  per  day  : 

Grms.  Grms. 

Man 0.287-0.510  Sheep 0.340-0.585 

Boy 0.457-0.541  Dog 0.663-1.350 

Ox 0.206-0.614  Horse 0.259 

Cow 0.174-0.392  Ass ..  0.673 

Calf 0.774  Goat 0.585 

Hog 0.921 

Other  observers  have  obtained  equally  small  and  unim 
portant  amounts. 

Quite  recently,  Seegen  and  Nowak,f  in  Yienna,  by  a 

*  Zweiter  Salzmiinder  Bericht,  1864,  p.  235. 
f  Biedermann's  Central  Blatt,  1879,  p.  593. 


102  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

peculiar  arrangement  of  the  respiration  apparatus,  claim  to 
have  showTi  an  exhalation  of  free  gaseous  nitrogen  by 
various  animals;  but  the  method  adopted  by  them  de- 
mands such  extraordinarily  accurate  analyses  that  the 
results  obtained  can  as  well  be  attributed  to  analytical 
errors  as  to  an  actual  excretion  of  free  nitrogen. 

Determination  of  Gain  or  Loss  of  Flesh. — In  the 
foregoing  paragraphs  we  have  presented,  somewhat  at 
length,  some  of  the  evidence  which  shows  that  nitrogen 
is  excreted  to  any  considerable  extent  only  in  the  visible 
ejecta.  This  evidence  could  have  been  greatly  amplified 
were  it  necessary,  but  enough  has  been  given  to  prove  tlie 
point  in  question. 

The  value  of  this  knowledge  lies  in  the  fact  that  by 
virtue  of  it  we  can  determine  easily  and  exactly  whether 
an  animal  is  gaining  or  losing  nitrogenous  constituents, 
i.e.,  flesh.  We  need  only  to  compare  the  amount  of  nitro- 
gen in  the  digested  portion  of  the  daily  fodder  of  the  ani- 
mal with  that  daily  excreted  in  its  urine ;  or,  more  simply 
still,  to  compare  the  total  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  f  oddei- 
with  that  of  all  the  sensible  excrements,  both  urine  and 
dung.  If  the  amount  in  the  fodder  is  the  greater,  the 
difference  evidently  nnist  be  still  retained  in  the  body  as 
flesh.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  amount  is  greater  in  the 
excrements,  it  shows  as  conclusively  that  more  albuminoids 
have  been  decomposed  than  have  been  supplied,  and  that 
the  animal  is  losing  flesh. 

Furthermore,  since  the  albuminoids  contain  on  an  aver- 
age 16  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  we  can,  by  multiplying  the 
difference  found  by  the  factor  6.25,  as  explained  on  page 
17,  calculate  the  weight  of  albuminoids  corresponding  to 
the  observed  difference  of  nitrogen,  and  thus  tell  exactly 
how  much  flesh  has  been  gained  or  dost.     If  the  amount 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  103 

of  nitrogen  found  in  the  excrements  is  the  same  as  that 
given  in  the  fodder,  it  shows,  of  course,  that  neither  a  gain 
nor  a  loss  has  taken  place. 

In  a  subsequent  chapter  we  shall  see  that  all  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  of  the  formation  of  flesh  has  been  obtained 
in  this  way,  and  that  consequently  the  truth  of  those  laws 
depends  on  the  truth  of  the  view  that  the  urinary  nitrogen 
is  a  measm-e  of  the  amount  of  protein  decomposed  in  the 
body. 

Excretion  of  Carbon. — The  carbon  of  the  organic 
matters  destroyed  in  the  body  is  excreted  in  two  ways. 

Part  of  it  leaves  the  body  in  the  various  urinary  prod- 
ucts, but  by  far  the  larger  portion  is  excreted  as  carbonic 
acid  through  lungs  and  skin,  as  already  described,  so  that 
an  investigation  into  the  gain  or  loss  of  carbon  by  the  ani- 
mal body  requires  a  determination  of  the  gaseous  excreta. 

Excretion  of  Hydrogen. — A  portion  of  the  hydrogen 
of  the  tissues  is  also  excreted  through  the  kidneys,  a  little 
of  it  in  combination  with  carbon,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  in 
the  urea,  etc.,  but  most  of  it  in  the  form  of  Avater. 

Considerable  quantities  of  water  are  also  excreted 
through  the  lungs,  as  is  made  evident  by  the  visible  con- 
densation of  the  moisture  of  the  breath  on  a  cold  day,  and 
likewise  through  the  skin. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

METHODS   OF   INVESTIGATION. 

The  practical  result  of  a  particular  method  of  feeding 
shows  itself,  if  we  neglect  for  the  moment  the  production 
of  milk  and  wool,  in  a  gain  of  flesh  or  fat  in  the  body  of 
the  animal  and  in  the  production  of  work.  We  have, 
then,  to  consider  more  minutely  the  various  circumstances 
which  are  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  the  production  of 
fat  or  flesh,  and  by  which  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  use- 
ful exertion  is  made  possible  to  the  animal. 

But  before  so  doing,  it  will  be  profitable  to  cast  a  brief 
glance  upon  the  methods  used  in  investigations  on  these 
subjects — on  the  ways  and  means  by  whose  help  our 
knowledge,  especially  of  the  laws  of  flesh-production,  has 
of  late  been  essentially  increased  and  made  clearer. 

§  1.  Determination  of  Digestibility. 

Digestion  Experiments. — While  the  pure  nutrients 
are  theoretically  capable  of  being  wholly  dissolved  and  re- 
sorbed  in  the  digestive  apparatus,  yet  in  practice  they  are 
so  enclosed  in  or  impregnated  by  indigestible  matters, 
which  protect  them  from  the  action  of  the  digestive  flu- 
ids, or  the  effect  of  the  latter  is  so  modified  by  the  pres- 
ence of  several  nutrients  at  once,  tliat  a  greater  or  less 
portion  escapes  digestion  and  is  excreted  in  the  dung. 

To  determine  the  digestibility  of  a  feeding-stuff,  both 
the  latter  and  the  dung  of  the  animal  are  carefully  weighed, 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  105 

and  analyzed  in  exactly  the  same  way.  The  absolute  quan- 
tity of  each  nutrient  which  enters  and  leaves  the  body  be- 
ing thus  known,  the  difference  between  the  total  amount 
of  dry  matter  in  fodder  and  dung  gives  the  total  amount 
of  matter  digested,  and  the  difference  in  the  amount  of 
any  particular  constituent,  e.  g.^  crude  fiber,  shows  how 
much  of  that  constituent  has  been  digested. 

It  is  a  matter  of  course  that  the  greatest  care  must  be 
exercised,  both  in  the  weighing  off  and  portioning  out  of 
the  fodder,  in  the  collection  of  the  excrement,  and  in  the 
preparation  of  a  correct  sample  for  chemical  analysis. 

In  fact,  a  high  degree  of  accuracy  has  been  reached  in 
such  "  digestion  experiments  "  by  the  help  of  various  ap- 
paratus, stall  fittings,  and  other  arrangements,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  results  of  control  experiments,  especially 
when  the  animal  is  of  a  kind  favorable  to  the  attainment 
of  accurate  results.  The  latter  is  generally  the  case  with 
the  smaller  animals,  particularly  with  sheep. 

The  Time  occupied  in  Digestion  in  the  rimiinants  is 
comparatively  long  ;  it  has  been  found  by  numerous  obser- 
vations, made  in  various  ways  with  the  same  result,  that 
after  a  sudden  alteration  of  the  feeding,  the  remnants  of 
the  former  fodder  are  still  recognizable  in  the  excrements 
for  as  much  as  five  days.  Accordingly,  in  all  digestion 
experiments,  the  fodder  whose  digestibility  is  to  be  deter- 
mined must  be  fed  for  a  period  of  several  days  before  the 
excrement  can  be  safely  considered  as  corresponding  to  the 
fodder  and  before  a  sample  can  be  taken  for  analysis. 
This  preparatory  period  must,  of  course,  be  long  enough  to 
insure  the  complete  elimination  of  the  remnants  of  the 
previous  fodder  ;  generally  it  is  extended  to  at  least  seven 
days. 

This  preparatoiy  period  is  the  more  important  since  the 


106  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

fodder  undergoes  a  much  more  intimate  mixture  in  the 
long  and  complex  digestive  apparatus  of  the  ruminants 
than  in  the  shorter  and  simpler  one  of  the  carnivora  or  of 
man.  In  the  latter  it  is  often  possible  to  distinguish  the 
excrement  coming  from  the  new  fodder  by  its  appearance 
simply,  and  if  a  little  colored  fruit  be  eaten,  it  fi-equently 
forms  a  sharp  line  of  division  between  the  two. 

The  process  of  digestion  in  the  horse  and  hog  is,  indeed, 
more  rapid  than  in  the  ruminants  ;  but,  nevertheless,  in 
experiments  on  these  animals,  a  similar  preparatory  period 
is  observed,  to  insure  entire  accuracy. 

A  Source  of  Error  in  Digestion  Experiments. — The 
amount  of  solid  matter  digested  must  be  equal  at  least  to 
the  difference  between  fodder  and  excrement ;  it  is,  in  fact, 
slightly  greater,  for  the  reason  that  the  dry  matter  of  the 
excrement  is  somewhat  increased  by  the  addition  of  certain 
products  of  the  intestines  themselves,  and  especially  of  por- 
tions of  the  bile  which  escape  resorption,  so  that  the  appar- 
ent digestibility  of  the  fodder  is  decreased  by  that  amount. 

Some  idea  of  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  substance  thus 
excreted,  and  the  consequent  error  in  the  determination  of 
the  digestibility  of  the  albuminoids,  may  be  obtained  by  de- 
termining the  nitrogen  in  the  ethereal  and  alcoholic  extracts 
of  the  excrement,  and  also  the  sulphur  in  organic  combina- 
tion contained  in  the  aqueous  extract.  The  constituents  of 
the  bile  are  largely  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  while  the 
albuminoids  are  not ;  of  the  bile-constituents  not  thus 
soluble  only  the  taurin  needs  to  be  considered,  and  this  is 
soluble  in  water  and  distinguished  by  a  very  large  content 
of  sulplmr  (25.6  per  cent.),  while  its  nitrogen  amounts  to 
11.2  per  cent.  In  this  way  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  the 
greatest  quantity  of  nitrogen  which'  may  possibly  have 
come  from  unresorbed  biliary  substances. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  107 

Some  experiments  made  in  Weende  by  E.  Scliulze  and 
M.  Marcker*  showed  that  this  nitrogen,  in  the  case  of 
sheep  fed  exdiisively  on  hay,  constituted  only  abont  4  per 
cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen  of  the  excrement  and  equalled 
only  about  2  per  cent,  of  that  of  the  fodder,  so  that  it 
could  not  cause  a  very  considerable  error  in  the  determina- 
tion of  the  digestibility.  In  the  excrement  of  swine,  which 
generally  consume  easily-digestible  fodder  and  therefore 
excrete  comparatively  little  solid  matter  in  their  dung,  the 
quantity  of  biliary  products  is  indeed  relatively  greater, 
and  their  nitrogen  amounts,  according  to  experiments  in 
Hohenheim  and  in  Kuschen,  to  one-fifth  or  even  one-fourth 
of  the  total  nitrogen  of  the  excrement,  but,  owing  to  the 
high  digestibility  of  their  ordinary  fodder,  equals  only  3  to 
6  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  latter. 

These  biliary  and  other  products,  then,  can  seriously  im- 
pair the  determination  of  the  digestibility  of  the  albumi- 
noids only  when  the  fodder  is  extraordinarily  poor  in 
nitrogen.  For  example,  it  was  observed  by  Grouven,  at  the 
Salzmiinde  Experiment  Station,  that  full-grown  oxen  on 
almost  "  starvation  fodder,"  amounting  to  only  5  to  9  lbs. 
of  rye  straw,  together  with  non-nitrogenous  materials,  per 
day,  sometimes  excreted  more  nitrogen  in  their  dung  than 
they  received  in  their  fodder. 

It  is  therefore  difficult  to  arrive  at  even  tolerably  accu- 
rate results  regarding  the  digestibility  of  the  protein  in 
substances  so  poor  in  nitrogen  as  the  straw  of  the  cereals, 
when  these  are  fed  alone  ;  but  with  even  an  approximately 
sufficient  fodder,  the  influence  of  the  biliary  products,  etc., 
is  not  at  all  considerable  and  becomes  less  the  more  nitro- 
genous the  fodder,  since  it  has  been  found,  at  least  in  the 

♦  Jour.  f.  Landw.,  1871,  p.  49. 


108  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

llolienheim  experiments  on  swine,  that  the  absolute  qiian« 
titj  of  these  products  in  the  excrement  is  no  greater  with 
a  rich  than  with  a  poor  fodder. 

Digestibility  of  Fat. — The  determmations  of  the  di- 
gestibility of  fat  hitherto  made  in  digestion  experiments 
are  much  less  exact  than  those  of  the  digestibility  of  albu- 
minoids. Most  of  the  biliary  products  are  soluble  in  ether, 
and  as  the  ordinary  fodder  of  domestic  animals  contains 
but  a  small  quantity  of  fat,  by  the  addition  of  these  pro- 
ducts to  the  actual  fat  contained  in  the  excrement  the 
apparent  digestibility  of  the  fat  must  eyidently  be  yerj 
considerably  decreased,  and  the  more  so  the  less  of  it  is 
contained  in  the  fodder. 

In  some  experiments  by  E.  y.  Wolff,  at  llohenheim,*  on 
swine,  the  animals  were  fed  exclusiyely  with  potatoes — a 
fodder  containing  but  little  fat — and  the  absolute  quantity 
of  crude  fat  (or,  more  correctly,  of  matter  soluble  in  ether) 
in  the  excrement  was  considerably  greater  than  that  con- 
tained in  the  fodder,  amounting  to  9.-iS  grms.,  and  10.95 
grms.  per  day  and  head,  against  4.27  grms.  and  4.91  grms. 
in  the  fodder. 

But,  notwithstanding  this  source  of  error,  digestion  ex- 
periments yield  results  for  fat  which,  although  by  no 
means  absolutely  correct,  are  yet,  to  a  certain  extent,  com- 
parable, and  haye  a  certain  worth  in  estimating  the  yalue 
of  a  fodder,  though  it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that 
they  are  too  low,  and  the  more  so  the  poorer  the  fodder  is 
in  fat.  AVe  haye  abeady  learned  that  the  results  obtained 
in  fodder  analysis  are  only  approximate.  They  do  not 
represent  pure  substances,  but  serye,  when  all  analyses  are 
carried  out  in  the  same  way,  to  compare  different  fodders 


*  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VIII.,  I.  Supplement,  p.  202. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  109 

with  each  other.  The  same  is  of  course  true  of  the  analy- 
sis of  the  excrement,  which  is  purposely  made  after  the 
same  method.  Remembering  these  facts,  we  comprehend 
that  the  determinations  of  digestibility  are  likewise  only 
approximations.  More  accurate  results  are  greatly  to  be 
desired,  but  at  present  we  have  no  means  of  obtaining 
them  and  must  be  content  with  our  present  methods, 
which,  though  confessedly  impejfect,  have  yet  been  of  the 
greatest  service  in  placing  the  practice  of  cattle-feeding  on 
a  rational  basis.  We  can  imderstand,  then,  that  the  pres- 
ence of  these  biliary  and  other  products  in  the  excrement 
is  not  so  great  a  som-ce  of  inaccuracy  as  it  might  at  first 
thought  seem,  since  their  quantity  is  relatively  small  and 
is  comparatively  constant  in  the  same  animal,  so  that  the 
results  of  digestion  experiments  are  fairly  comparable. 
At  any  rate,  we  may  be  sure  that,  if  we  base  our  calcula- 
tions of  the  amount  of  fodder  to  be  given  for  any  particu- 
lar purpose  on  results  obtained  by  the  above  methods,  the 
animals  will  not  get  less  than  the  calculated  amount  of 
nutrients,  though  they  may  receive  slightly  more. 

§  3.  Determination  of  the  Nutritive  Effect  of  a  Ration. 

Production  of  Flesh. — The  method  of  determining  the 
gain  or  loss  of  flesh  in  an  animal,  which  has  been  already 
indicated,  is  based  on  the  well-established  fact  that  the 
nitrogen  of  the  urine  is  an  accurate  measure  of  the  amount 
of  protein  decomposed  in  the  body. 

If  in  a  digestion  experiment,  carried  out  as  described  in 
§  1,  the  urine  of  the  animal  be  also  accurately  collected  and 
measured,  and  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  which  it  contains 
determmed,  we  have  all  the  data  necessary  to  determine 
the  gain  or  loss  of  flesh. 

From  the  determinations  of  the  digestibility  of  the  fodder 


110  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

we  know  liow  mucli  nitrogen  lias  entered  into  the  system, 
while  the  urinary  nitrogen  tells  ns  how  much  has  left  it ; 
the  difference  between  the  two,  of  course,  is  the  gain  or 
loss  of  nitrogen  by  the  body,  and  since  the  albmninoids 
contain,  on  an  average,  16  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  this  quan- 
tity, multiplied  by  6.25,  gives  the  gain  or  loss  of  dry  pro- 
tein. If  it  is  desired  to  know  the  amount  of  fresh  flesh, 
with  its  normal  content  of  water  and  ash,  which  has  been 
gained  or  lost,  this  also  can  be  calculated  from  the  average 
composition  of  the  latter.  Yoit,"^  in  all  his  experiments, 
reckons,  on  the  basis  of  his  own  and  other  analyses,  that 
fresh  flesh,  free  fi'om  fat,  has  the  following  composition : 

Water 75.9  per  cent. 

Ash 1.3       " 

Dry  matter 22.8       " 

100.0 
Nitrogen 3.4      " 

Other  observers  have  obtained  results  differing  slightly 
from  this,  but  not  sufficiently  to  be  of  serious  consequence, 
and  since  so  many  experiments  by  Yoit  and  others  are 
calculated  on  this  basis,  it  will  be  convenient  to  follow  the 
example  of  this  eminent  investigator.  Assuming,  then, 
that  fresh,  fat-free  flesh  contains  3.4  per  cent,  of  nitrogen, 
we  have  only  to  multiply  the  gain  or  loss  of  nitrogen  ob- 
served in  our  experiment  by  29.4  (3.4  per  cent,  x  29.4 
==  100  per  cent.)  to  learn  how  much  flesh  our  animal  has 
laid  on  or  destroyed,  wliile  similar  calculations  on  the  total 
urinary  nitrogen  will  inform  us  of  the  total  amounts,  re- 
spectively, of  protein  or  of  flesh  decomposed  in  the  vital 
processes. 

*  "  Emahmng  des  Fleischfressers,"  1860,  p.  304,  and  Zeitschrift  fiir 
Biologic,  1866,  p.  468. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  Ill 

A  preparatory  period  of  feeding  is,  of  course,  necessary, 
as  explained  in  the  previous  section,  and  tliis  must  be  long 
enough  to  allow  the  body  to  come  into  equilibrium  with 
the  food,  so  that  the  effects  of  the  latter  may  have  fully 
developed  themselves.  The  experiment  proper  must  also 
extend  over  a  sufficient  time  to  give  a  fair  average.  At 
least  twenty-four  hours  is  necessary  for  this,  but  better 
results  are  obtained  when  the  experiment  covers  several 
days. 

Finally,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  results  ob- 
tained show,  in  the  first  place,  only  the  gain  or  loss  of  ni- 
trogen^  and  that  the  factors  used  for  converting  this  into 
protein  or  flesh  are  average  numbers  only,  and  that,  while 
they  are  nearly  enough  true  for  practical  purposes,  they 
are  not  absolutely  accurate  in  all  cases. 

Production  of  Fat. — As  the  production  of  flesh  is  es- 
timated by  a  comparison  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures 
of  nitrogen  by  the  body,  so  the  production  of  fat  is  esti- 
mated by  the  gain  or  loss  of  carbon. 

For  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  the 
gaseous  products  of  respiration  and  perspiration,  since  the 
larger  part  of  the  carbon  excreted  leaves  the  body  through 
these  channels. 

These  products  can  only  be  estimated  with  accuracy  by 
means  of  a  special  apparatus,  first  constructed  in  a  practi- 
cal form  by  Pettenkofer,  in  Munich,  and  now  widely  used 
under  the  name  of  "  Pettenkofer's  Respiration  Apparatus." 

The  Respiration  Apparatus. — The  principles  of  this  most  important 
apparatus  are  well  illustrated  in  an  ordinary  stove,  in  which  the  gases 
coming-  from  the  fire  may  represent  those  coming  from  the  lungs  of  the 
animal. 

As  long  as  the  chimney  draws,  no  smoke  escapes  from  the  doors  and 
draughts  of  the  stove,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  air  presses  from  all 
sides  into  the  stove,  to  pass  out  through  the  chimney. 


112  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

If,  in  the  pipe  conducting  the  smoke  from  the  stove  to  the  chimney, 
an  exact  measurement  of  the  volume  of  air  passing  were  possible,  and 
if,  also,  the  composition  of  the  air  entering  the  stove  and  of  that  passing 
out  could  be  exactly  determined  in  an  aliquot  part  of  it,  we  should 
have  all  the  factors  needed  in  order  to  determine  what  had  been  added 
to  the  air  that  entered  the  stove  by  the  fire  inside  it. 

In  the  respiration  apparatus  the  place  of  the  stove  is  taken  by  a  small 
room,  constructed  of  boiler-iron,  serving  to  contain  the  subject  of  the 
experiment.  This  room  has  windows,  cemented  as  air-tight  as  possible 
into  its  sides,  and  a  door,  provided  with  slides  through  which  the  oat- 
side  air  has  unhindered  entrance. 

The  place  of  the  chimney  is  taken  by  large  air-pumps  which  are  kept 
in  uniform  motion  at  any  required  velocity  by  powerful  clock-work, 
which  is  wound  up  continuallj^  by  a  small  steam-engine.  In  some  cases 
this  arrangement  of  pumps  has  been  replaced  by  a  rotary  blower. 

The  air  which  is  pumped  out  of  the  saloon  is  accurately  measured 
by  means  of  a  large  gas-meter,  and  in  order  to  obtain  an  aliquot  part 
of  this  air,  and  at  the  same  time  to  analyze  the  air  as  it  enters  the 
saloon,  small  mercury  pumps  are  provided,  which  withdraw  uniformly  a 
certain  portion  of  air  from  that  leaving  the  saloon  and  also  from  the  air 
just  before  entering  it.  These  portions  of  air  are  accurately  measured 
by  smaller  meters,  and  their  content  of  water  and  carbonic  acid  deter- 
mined by  absorption  of  the  water  by  sulphuric  acid  and  of  the  carbonic 
acid  by  baryta  water. 

The  difEerence  in  water  and  carbonic  acid  between  the  air  as  it  enters 
and  as  it  leaves  the  saloon,  calculated  on  the  whole  volume  of  air  pass- 
ing through  it,  gives  the  quantity  added  in  the  apparatus,  i.  e.,  expired 
by  the  animal.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  above-described  apparatus  is  so 
arranged  that  the  animal  or  man  experimented  upon  is  under  entirely 
normal  circumstances,  ^.  e. ,  under  the  same  atmospheric  pressure  and 
in  an  equally  pure  atmosphere  as  in  a  stall  or  ordinary  room.  This  is 
a  great  advantage,  because  only  in  this  way  can  the  experiment  be  car- 
ried on  as  long  as  is  desirable,  and  results  obtained  which  are  reliable 
and  correspond  to  natural  conditions. 

By  the  use  of  the  respiration  apparatus,  in  connection 
with  analyses  and  weighings  of  food,  drink,  dung,  and 
urine,  we  are  able  to  determine  all  the  materials  put  into 
and  removed  from  the  body,  and  thus  to  know  the  exact 
effect  of  any  given  ration. 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  113 

The  calculation  of  the  gain  or  loss  of  flesh  has  already 
been  explained.  By  determining  the  amount  of  carbon 
contained  in  the  carbonic  acid  excreted  through  the  lungs 
and  skin  and  in  the  urea,  etc.,  excreted  by  the  kidneys, 
and  comparing  it  with  the  amount  contained  in  the  di- 
gested portion  of  the  food,  we  can  find  whether  the  ani- 
mal is  o^ainino^  or  losins'  carbon  in  the  same  manner  as  we 
can  determine  whether  it  is  gaining  or  losing  nitrogen. 
If  the  excreted  carbon  is  less  than  that  contained  in  the 
food,  the  difference  must  have  been  retained  in  the  body  ; 
if  greater,  the  excess  must  have  come  from  the  tissues  of 
the  body.  The  gain  or  loss  of  carbon,  however,  may  have 
been  in  one  or  both  of  two  forms :  viz.,  fat  or  albuminoids. 

If  the  comparison  of  the  nitrogen  in  fodder  and  excre- 
ments shows  that  the  body  has  neither  gained  nor  lost  albu- 
minoids, then  the  carbon  gained  or  lost  was  all  in  the  form 
of  fat,  since  the  other  non -nitrogenous  substances  in  the 
body  are  so  small  in  amount  that  they  can  be  neglected. 
But  every  100  parts  of  fat  contains,  on  an  average  (p.  12), 
76.5  parts  of  carbon,  and  therefore  every  76.5  parts  of 
carbon  shown  by  the  experiment  to  have  been  gained  or 
lost  represents  100  parts  of  fat,  or  one  part  of  carbon  cor- 
responds to  1.3  parts  of  fat.  The  method  of  calculation  is 
exactly  similar  to  that  used  in  calculating  the  gain  or  loss 
of  albmninoids  from  that  of  nitrogen. 

The  calculation  is  essentially  the  same  if  a  gain  or  loss 
of  albuminoids  has  taken  place,  except  that  the  amount  of 
carbon  contained  in  the  latter  must  be  deducted  from  or 
added  to,  as  the  case  may  be,  that  found  by  experiment 
before  multiplying  by  the  factor  1.3.  An  example  will 
render  this  clearer. 

In  an  experiment  made  at  the  Weende  Experiment  Sta- 
tion on  sheep,  the  animals  received  per  day  and  head  1,216 


114 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


grammes  *  of  hay,  together  with  the  necessary  amomit  of 
water.  In  fodder  and  excrements  were  found  the  follow- 
ing amounts  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  ; 


In  Fodder — 

Hay 

Water , 

In  Excrement  s- 

Dung , 

Urme 

Expired  air 

Retained  in  body 


Carbon. 
Grms. 

Nitrogen. 
Grins. 

460.1 

18.1 

0.1 

.0 

460.2 

18.1 

202.5 

8.45 

23.2 

7.65 

213.8 

.... 

439.5 

16.10 

20.7 

2.00 

Taking  first  the  gain  of  nitrogen,  we  find  that 

2  grms.  X    6.25  =  12.50  grms,  of  protein. 
2     "       X    29.4  =  58.80      "       "  flesh. 

and,  therefore,  that  the  animal  had  gained  58.8  grms,  of 
flesh  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Taking  next  the  gain  of  carbon,  we  have  to  consider 
how  much  of  it  is  due  to  the  gain  of  flesh,  and  how  much 
to  a  deposition  of  fat.  The  albuminoids  contain  on  an 
average  (p.  lY)  53  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  hence  the  12.5 
grms.  of  albuminoids  gained  in  this  experiment  contained 
Q.6  grms.  of  this  element.     Out  of  the  total  gain  of  20. Y 

*  One  gramme  =  15.43  grains ;  1,000  grammes  =  1  kilogramme  = 
about  2.2  lbs. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  115 

grms.  of  carbon,  then,  6.6  grms.  were  contained  in  the  flesh 
laid  on,  leaving  Itlr.l  grms.,  which  must  have  been  gained 
as  fat.  Bnt,  as  we  have  seen,  one  part  of  carbon  is  equiva- 
lent to  1.3  parts  of  fat,  and  hence  we  have — 

11.0x1.3  =  18.2  grms., 

the  amoimt  of  fat  gained. 

So,  then,  the  result  of  the  ration  of  1,216  grms.  of  hay 
per  day  was,  in  this  particular  case,  a  gain  by  the  animal 
of  12.5  grms.  of  albuminoids  and  18.2  grms.  of  fat  in 
twenty-four  hours. 

By  a  similar  process  the  gain  or  loss  of  water  by  the 
body  can  be  determined,  and  thus  the  total  gain  or  loss,  as 
shown  by  the  live-weight  of  the  animal  from  day  to  day, 
can  be  analyzed,  and  we  are  enabled  to  say  how  much  of 
the  gain  which  may  be  observed  is  the  valuable  flesh  or 
fat,  and  how  much  is  due  simply  to  a  greater  or  less  quan^ 
tity  of  water  in  the  tissues,  or  of  food  and  drink  in  the 
intestines. 

The  following  table  (p.  116)  gives  the  detailed  results  of 
the  above  experiment  in  the  form  of  a  balance-sheet,  and 
will  give  some  idea  of  the  care  and  labor  with  which  such 
investigations  are  conducted. 

Any  loss  by  the  body  is,  of  course,  placed  on  the  "  con- 
sumption - '  side  of  the  account,  and  any  gain  on  the  "  pro- 
duction "  side. 

The  Live-weight  alone,  although  very  valuable  for 
many  purposes,  gives  but  a  very  imperfect  idea  of  the 
effect  of  a  ration.  The  live-weight  of  an  animal  includes 
not  only  the  solid  matter  of  its  tissues,  but  also  water,  the 
food  eaten,  and  the  dung  and  urine  contained  in  the  rectum 
and  bladder ;  so  that  an  increase  of  the  live-weight  by  forty 
or  fifty  pounds  is  capable  of  many  interpretations. 


116 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Dry  Matter. 
Water. 

1  " 

1 
s 

1 

a 

O 

Consumption. 
2936.5  Food  AND  Drik^  : 

1216.0  Hay 

6.0  Salt 

Grms. 

997.4 
5.7 

1.8 
0.8 

Grms. 

218.6 
0.3 

1712.7 

Grms. 

67.9 
5.7 
1.6 

0.8 

Grms. 

460.1 

0.1 

Grms. 

85.8 
0.03 
190.3 

Grms. 
18.1 

Grm.s. 

584.0 
0.27 

1714.5  Well-water 

1522.5 

0  8  Loss  BY  Body 

587.6  Oxygen  pkom  Air 

587.6 

3524.9 

76.0 

460.2 

276.2 

18.1 

2694.4 

Production. 
1814.5  Excrements: 

1257.0  Dung 

424.9 
79.7 

832.1 

477.8 

44.0 
31.1 

202.5 
23.2 

212.7 
1.1 

117.5 
55.5 

8.45 
7.65 

884.6 

557.5  Urine 

439  9 

1640.1  Respiratory  Products: 
780  0  Carbonic  acid   ...     . 

567  3 

1  5  Marsh  gas 

0.4 
95.4 

0.7 
0.6 
2.1 
4.0 

858.6  Water 

858.6 
2.1 

35.9 

0.75 
1.25 

763  2 

70.3  Gain  by  Body: 

9.5  Wool(includ.  fat,  etc.) 
7  8  Protein 

7.4 

7.8 
17.1 

0.9 

3.5 
4.1 
13.1 

3.7 
1  9 

17.1  Fat 

1  9 

35.9  Water 

31  9 

3524.9 

1 

76.0 

460.2 

276.2 

18.1    2694.4 

It  may  indicate  a  gain  of  flesh  or  fat,  or  both,  or  it  may 
result  simply  from  an  increase  of  the  Avater  content  of  the 
tissues,  or  from  an  increased    amount  of  food,  water  or 

The  stomach  alone  of  the  ox  will 


dung  in  the  intestines. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  117 

hold  100  to  150  lbs.  of  water.  The  excretion  of  dung,  too, 
is  more  or  less  irregular,  especially  for  the  first  week  or  two 
on  a  new  ration. 

"  Grouven  found  in  many  of  his  feeding  experiments 
that  during  the  first  week  the  amount  of  dung  excreted 
was  often  as  much  as  twenty  pounds  too  great  or  too 
small." 

To  get  the  most  correct  results  from  live-weight,  the 
animals  should  be  weighed  always  at  the  same  time  in  the 
day,  either  before  or  after  eating,  but  always  under  the 
same  circumstances,  so  far  as  possible.  With  all  precau- 
tions, however,  the  live-weight  of  a  thousand-pound  animal 
may  vary  as  much  as  50  lbs.  daily. 

Stohmann  gives  the  following  example : 

An  ox  weighed,  May  23 1298.3  lbs.* 

"  "  "      24 1242.4  " 

"  "  "     30 1269.8  '' 

"  "      31  1288.3  " 

♦*  "         June    3 1271.1  " 

"  "  "       4 1210.7  " 

"  ♦'  "      12 1294.2  " 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  that  the  live-weight  is  a 
very  uncertain  criterion  for  judging  of  the  effect  of  a  ra- 
tion, and  that  for  scientific  purposes,  where  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  gain  or  loss  of  flesh  and  fat  is  required, 
it  is  almost  worthless. 

These  remarks  are  not  to  be  understood  as  calling  in 
question  the  practical  value  of  the  live-weight.  The  scales 
are  (or  should  be)  an  important  adjunct  to  the  stable,  but 
it  is  all  the  more  necessary,  on  that  account,  to  know  how 
far  their  indications  can  be  trusted,  while  every  one  who 

*  1  German  lb.  equals  about  1.1  English  lb. 


118  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

imdertakes  to  make  feeding  experiments  should  be  aware 
of  the  exceeding  ambiguity  which  attaches  to  small 
changes  of  weight. 

The  foregoing  explanations  make  evident  how  much 
labor  and  care  are  necessary  in  order  to  determine,  with 
any  certainty,  the  nutritive  value  of  even  a  single  article 
of  fodder  for  a  single  class  of  animals,  and  it  is  no  cause 
for  surprise  that  the  theory  of  feeding  can  only  reach 
its  complete  development  in  all  directions  slowly.  When 
the  question  is  only  of  the  gain  or  loss  of  flesh,  the  method 
of  experiment,  as  we  have  seen,  is  much  simpler  and  less 
laborious  and  demands  less  expensive  apparatus,  than  when 
the  effect  of  the  ration  as  a  fat-producer  is  to  be  deter- 
mined ;  and  it  is  therefore  natural  that  the  laws  of  "  flesh- 
building"  are  already  very  thoroughly  explored,  while  in 
regard  to  the  circumstances  under  which  the  greatest  and 
most  advantageous  production  of  fat  or  work  is  to  be  ob- 
tained we  are  much  more  in  the  dark. 


CHAPTER  YL 

FORMATION  OF   FLESH. 

§  1.  Introductory. 

In  the  foregoing  chapters  we  have  considered  the  com- 
position of  the  animal  body  and  of  those  substances  which 
serve  to  nourish  it — the  nutrients,  the  manner  in  which 
these  nutrients  are  digested  and  resorbed  so  as  to  become 
part  of  the  body,  and  in  outline  the  changes  which  they 
undergo  in  the  body  and  the  forms  in  which  they  are 
finally  excreted  from  it. 

We  saw  that  we  may  regard  the  body  as  composed  es- 
sentially of  protein,  fat  and  mineral  matters.  The  object 
of  feeding  is  a  production  of  these  several  ingredients  in 
greater  or  less  quantity.  If  an  animal  is  simply  to  be 
kept  in  the  same  bodily  condition — to  be  wintered,  e.  g. — 
we  aim  only  to  produce  enough  to  supply  the  unavoidable 
destruction  of  tissue  that  goes  on  in  every  living  organism, 
while  in  feeding  for  milk,  or  in  fattening,  we  endeavor  to 
obtain  the  most  rapid  production  possible,  especially  of 
protein  and  fat ;  but  in  any  case  some  production  must 
take  place. 

Plainly,  then,  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  know 
the  laws  that  regulate  the  formation  of  flesh  (protein)  and 
fat,  from  what  ingredients  of  the  food  they  are  formed, 
and  what  quantities  and  proportions  of  the  latter  will  pro- 
duce the  desired  effect  most  rapidly  and  cheaply.  In  this 
chapter  we  sliall  consider  the  laws  regulating  the  produc- 


120  MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

tion  of  flesh,  and  in  the  following  one  those  governing  the 
production  of  fat. 

The  Lavrs  of  the  Formation  of  Flesh  have  been 
most  thoroughly  studied  in  the  carnivora,  but  they  are 
essentially  the  same  for  all  the  higher  animals. 

The  various  races  of  animals  differ,  indeed,  as  regards 
the  fodder  which  they  chiefly  consume,  as  well  as  in  their 
greater  or  less  digestive  power  for  certain  kinds  of  fodder ; 
but  the  real  nutrients  which  are  resorbed  fi'om  the  diges- 
tive apparatus,  even  with  the  most  varied  rations,  are 
always  the  same,  viz. :  protein,  fat,  and  sugar,  together 
with  water  and  certain  salts.  Since,  furthermore,  in  all 
mammals  at  least,  the  corresponding  organs  are  entirely 
similar  in  their  structure,  chemical  composition,  and  func- 
tions, the  decomposition  of  their  constituents  must  follow 
the  same  course,  i.  e.,  the  substances  once  resorbed  and 
taken  up  into  the  circidation  decompose  or  are  laid  up  in 
the  body  according  to  the  same  laws. 

Moreover,  the  laws  derived  from  experiments  on  car- 
nivora have  been  completely  confirmed  in  their  general 
scope  and  bearing  in  all  the  experiments  recently  made 
on  herbivora,  viz.,  on  oxen,  cows,  sheep^  and  goats,  though 
the  total  amount  of  material  decomposed  or  stored  up  in 
the  body  varies  according  to  the  proportions  of  the  various 
classes  of  nutrients  contained  in  the  normal  fodder  of  the 
animal. 

The  food  of  the  carnivora  consists  chiefly  of  protein  and 
fat,  while  the  herbivora  consume  relatively  less  of  these 
but  large  quantities  of  carbhydrates. 

The  ability  of  the  carnivora  and  herbivora  to  resorb  the 
Aarious  nutrients  is  not,  however,  so  different  as  is  gener- 
ally supposed  ;  it  has  been  shown,  e.  (/.,  that  a  dog  is  able 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  121 

to  digest  and  resorb,  daily,  as  much  as  15  grms.  of  starch 
per  kilogramme  of  live  weight,  while  a  well-fed  milk-cow, 
or  even  a  fattening  ox,  resorbs  from  its  fodder,  daily,  not 
more  than  12  to  18  grms.  of  carbhydrates  per  kilogramme 
live  weight.  Similar  facts  have  been  observed  regarding 
the  resorption  of  protein,  but  not  regarding  that  of  fat, 
which  is  digested  by  the  carnivora  in  relatively  far  greater 
cj^uantity  than  by  herbivora. 

A  large  part  of  our  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  the  for- 
mation of  flesh  is  due  to  the  labors  at  Munich  of  Karl 
Yoit,  at  first  in  conjunction  with  Bischoff  and,  later, 
alone  and  Avitli  v.  Pettenkofer.  These  investigators  have 
made  a  great  number  of  experiments,  chiefly  on  dogs,  de- 
termining the  gain  or  loss  of  flesh  and  the  total  amount 
of  protein  decomposed  in  the  body  by  the  method  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  Y.,  and  to  them  belongs  the  honor, 
both  of  having  established  a  reliable  method  of  investiga- 
tion (see  Chapter  lY.,  pp.  9-1-97)  and  of  having  applied  it 
successfully  to  the  solution  of  the  important  question  of 
the  effect  of  food  on  the  gain  or  loss  of  flesh.  The  results 
stated  in  this  chapter  are  largely  those  of  the  above-named 
investigators. 

Protein  Consumption.  —  In  considering  the  laws  of 
flesh-formation,  there  are  two  parallel  processes  to  be  dis- 
tinguished. 

In  the  first  place,  in  every  living  organism  a  certain 
quantity  of  albuminoid  matter  is  daily  destroyed  in  the 
vital  processes,  and  its  nitrogen  appears  as  urea,  etc.,  in 
the  urine. 

The  amount  of  protein  or  flesh  thus  destroyed  may  vary 
greatly  in  different  animals,  or  in  the  same  animal  at  dif- 
ferent times,  but  it  can  only  cease  entirely  with  the  cessa- 
tion of  life,  and  cannot  smk  below  a  certain  minimum 
6 


122  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

amount  without  serious  derangement  of  the  vital  func- 
tions. This  continual  and  necessary  process  we  shall  call 
protein  consumptio?i/^  This,  of  course,  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  amomit  consumed  by  the  animal  in  its 
food.    It  denotes  a  very  different  thing. 

In  the  second  place,  from  a  sufficient  and  suitable  fod- 
der more  protein  may  be  resorbed  into  the  circulation 
than  is  needed  to  supply  the  consumption  under  the  given 
circumstances,  and  this  sm-plus  produces  a  deposition  of 
protein  and  becomes  part  of  the  body.  Evidently,  what- 
ever decreases  the  protein  consumption  and  increases  the 
amount  deposited  in  the  tissues  is  so  much  gained  in 
feeding. 

The  protein  consumption  is  not  to  be  considered  as 
waste,  for  it  is  necessary  to  the  vital  processes  and,  as  we 
shaU  see,  is  generally  greater  the  richer  the  food,  but  an 
improperly  constituted  ration  may  unnecessarily  increase  it 
and  result  in  an  unproductive  use  of  fodder.  The  smaller 
the  protein  consmnption  can  be  made,  consistently  with 
the  proper  performance  of  the  vital  fiinctions,  the  more  of 
the  protein  of  the  food  is  available  for  the  production  of 
flesh. 


*We  have  seen  (Chap.  V.)  that  from  the  urinary  nitrogen  we  can 
calculate  the  amount  of  either  dry  protein  or  fresh  flesh  decomposed 
in  the  body,  by  multiplying  respectively  by  6.25  or  29.4.  In  most  of 
the  experiments  which  have  been  made  on  carnivora  the  results  have 
been  expressed  as  flesh,  while  in  those  executed  on  herbivora  the  re- 
sults have  been  calculated  as  dry  protein.  In  the  one  case  we  should 
speak  of  the  "  consumption  of  flesh,"  and,  in  the  other,  of  the 
"protein  consumption."  The  two  are  equivalent,  but  not  equal, 
the  consumption  of  flesh  being  4.7  times  the  protein  consump- 
tion. 

In  the  following  pages  we  shall  have  occasion  to  use  both  ezpres' 
aions. 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  123 

§  2.  Organized  and  Circiilatort  Protein. 

Protein  Consumption  during  Hunger. — The  follow- 
ing table  *  gives,  iq  grammes,  the  quantities  of  urea  daily 
excreted  by  a  fasting  dog  weighiag  about  35  kilogrammes 
(77  lbs.),  the  excretion  of  urea  beiag,  as  we  have  seen,  an 
exact  measure  of  the  protein  consumption  in  the  body. 


No.  of  Experiment. 

11. 

5. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

Previous  food 
per  day. 

2,500  grms, 
meat. 

1,800  grms. 

meat  and  250 

grms.  fat. 

1,500  grms. 
meat. 

1,500  grms. 
meat. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Last  day  of  feeding 

180.8 

130.0 

110.8 

110.8 

24.7 

1st  day  of  fasting 

60.1 

37.5 

29  7 

26.5 

19.6 

2d       " 

24.9 

23.3 

18.2 

18.6 

15.6 

3d      " 

19.1 

16.7 

17.5 

15.7 

14.9 

4th     "        " 

17.3 

14.8 

14.9 

14.9 

13.2 

5th     "        *' 

12.3 

12.6 

14.2 

14.8 

12.7 

6th     ♦'        " 

13.3 

12.8 

13.0 

12.8 

13.0 

7th     *' 

12.5 

12.0 

12.1 

12.9 

.... 

8th     "        '* 

10.1 

.... 

12.9 

12.1 



9th     ** 

.... 

.... 

.... 

11.9 



10th   "        " 

.... 

.... 

.... 

11.4 

.... 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  these  experiments  the  protein 
consumption  (as  measured  by  the  excretion  of  urea)  was 
very  unequal  on  the  last  day  of  the  feeding  and  the  first 
days  of  himger ;  furthermore,  that  when  food  was  with- 
held the  protein  consumption  at  once  sank,  rapidly  at  first 
but  at  last  very  slowly,  till  at  about  the  sixth  day  it  became 

*  Voit :  Zeitschrift  fur  Biologic,  II.,  pp.  307-365. 


124 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


practically  the  same  in  all  cases  and  so  continued  during 
the  remaining  days,  its  amount  being  represented  by  the 
excretion  of  about  12  grammes  of  urea.  A  large  number 
of  other  experiments  gave  the  same  result. 

The  Two  Factors  determining  Protein  Consump- 
tion.—It  is  plain  from  the  above  figures  that  there  are 
two  factors  which  determine  the  amount  of  protein  de- 
stroyed in  the  body  ;  a  constant  one,  which  caused  in 
these  experiments  an  excretion  of  about  12  grammes  of  urea 
per  day,  and  a  variable  one,  which  caused  the  excretion  of 
very  different  quantities  of  urea  at  first,  and  which  gradu- 
ally disappeared  as  the  experiments  progressed. 


No.  of  Experiment. 

11. 

5. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

Previous  food 
per  day. 

2,500  grms. 
meat. 

1,800  grms. 

meat  and  250 

grms.  fat. 

1,500  grms. 
meat. 

1,500  grms. 
meat. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Last  day  of  feeding 

168.8 

118.0 

98.8 

98.8 

12.7 

Ist  dayof  fasting. 

48.1 

25.5 

17.7 

14.5 

7.6 

2d 

13.9 

11.3 

6.2 

6.6 

3.6 

3d 

7.1 

4.7 

5.5 

3.7 

2.9 

4th       "        " 

5.3 

2.8 

2.0 

2.9 

1.2 

5th       " 

0.3 

0.6 

2.2 

2.8 

0.7 

6th       " 

1.3 

0.8 

1.0 

0.8 

1.0 

7th       "        '' 

0.5 

0.0 

0.1 

0.9 



8th       "         " 

-1.9 

.... 

0.9 

0.1 



9th       " 

.... 





-0.1 



10th     '* 

.... 

.... 

.... 

-0.6 

.... 

Total* 

244.3 

163.7 

135.3 

131.1 

29.7 

Omitting  the  negative  quantities. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  125 

If  we  ass  nine  12  grammes  of  m-ea  as  the  amount  due  to 
the  constant  factor,  and  subtract  this  from  the  total  excre- 
tion on  the  several  days  in  these  experiments,  the  remain- . 
ders  will  exhibit  the  action  of  the  variable  factor.     In  the 
table  on  the  opposite  page  this  has  been  done. 

This  table  shows  still  more  clearly  the  great  influence  of 
the  variable  factor  at  first  and  its  speedy  disappearance 
when  the  suj^ply  of  food  is  cut  off. 

Organized  and  Circulatory  Protein. — It  is  evident 
from  these  and  a  great  number  of  similar  residts  that  the 
protein  of  the  living  body  exists  in  two  forms — a  compara- 
tively stable  one,  which  decomposes  slowly  and  yielded  in 
these  experiments  about  12  grammes  of  urea  per  day,  and 
an  easily  decomposable  one,  whose  amount  depends  on  the 
food  and  which  is  rapidly  destroyed  when  food  is  with- 
held. The  quantity  of  the  latter  is  small  as  compared 
with  that  of  the  former.  In  experiment  11,  for  example, 
where  its  amount  was  greatest,  its  total  quantity  was  only 
about  3,364  grammes  of  flesh  (244.3  grms.  of  urea  x  13.7Y), 
while  the  animal  weighed  about  35,000  grammes. 

Yoit  designates  the  stable  protein  of  the  body  as  organ- 
ized jprotein^  and  considers  that  it  makes  up  the  mass  of 
the  organs;  while  the  variable  and  easily  decomposing 
quantity  he  calls  circulatory  proteiii.  Under  the  latter  he 
does  not  include  the  protein  of  the  blood  and  lymph,  but 
only  the  dissolved  protein  whicli  penetrates  from  these 
into  the  tissues  and  bathes  the  cells  in  a  nourishing  fluid. 

Some  good  authorities  dispute  the  correctness  of  the 
names  circulatory  and  organized  protein,  but  there  is  no 
dispute  as  to  the  correctness  and  importance  of  the  distinc- 
tion which  they  imply  between  the  two  forms  of  protein 
in  the  body.  For  our  present  purpose  this  is  the  impor- 
tant thing,  and  we  shall  use  Yoit's  nomenclature,  under- 


126  MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

standing  by  organized  j[>rotein  the  great  mass  of  slowly 
decomposing  nitrogenous  compounds  in  the  body,  and  by 
circulatory  jprotein  the  relatively  small  quantity  of  easily 
decomposable  albuminoids  which  it  contains. 

The  quantity  of  circulatory  protein  in  a  poorly  nourished 
body  is  only  small,  not  amounting  in  hunger  to  one  per 
cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  organized  albuminoids,  but  its 
amomit  is  increased  by  an  abundance  of  protein  in  the 
food,  and  may,  at  least  in  the  carnivora,  rise  to  five  per 
cent,  or  more.  But,  be  the  quantity  of  circulatory  protein 
large  or  small,  the  greater  part  of  it,  generally  seventy  to 
eighty  per  cent.,  is  consumed  in  the  course  of  twenty -four 
hours,  and  an  exactly  corresponding  quantity  of  nitrogen 
excreted  in  the  urine  as  urea,  etc. ;  while  of  the  organized 
protein,  at  most  not  more  than  0.8  per  cent,  is  consumed — 
that  is,  the  protein  consumption  in  the  body  takes  place 
almost  wholly  at  the  expense  of  the  circulatory  protein. 

It  can  be  by  no  means  assumed,  as  was  formerly  done, 
that  all  organs  of  the  body  are  subject  to  a  rapid  metamor- 
phosis, and  that  in  the  course  of  a  comparatively  short  time 
the  whole  organism  to  the  last  atom  is  renewed  and  rebuilt. 

This  is  only  the  case  as  regards  a  few  tissues.  The 
blood  corpuscles,  e.  g.^  and  the  milk  glands  in  the  period 
of  their  greatest  activity,  are  rapidly  destroyed  and  as 
rapidly  re-formed ;  but  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
organs  have,  when  once  formed,  a  much  greater  stability, 
although  the  contents  of  the  cells  vary  much  in  quantity 
and  quality  with  the  varying  food  of  the  animal.  The 
circulatory  protein,  on  the  contrary,  suffers  a  continual  and 
rapid  destruction,  and  must  be  continually  replaced  by 
protein  from  the  food. 

Other  Experiments. — That  the  organized  protein  of 
the  animal  body  is  destroyed  far  less  easily  than  the  cu*cu- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


127 


latory  protein,  is  also  indicated  by  more  direct  experiments 
which  have  lately  been  made. 

If  by  any  means  it  were  possible  to  introduce  into  the 
body  of  an  animal  which  had  been  deprived  of  food  long 
enough  to  destroy  its  circulatory  protein,  albuminoids  in 
the  form  of  a  living  organ  from  another  animal,  we  should 
expect  that,  according  to  Yoit's  theory,  these  albuminoids 
would  be  but  slowly  destroyed  in  the  body.  Forster  *  at- 
tempted to  accomplish  this  by  the  transfusion  of  blood, 
and  found  that  the  protein  of  living  blood,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  organized,  was  but  slowly  destroyed  in  the 
system,  while  simple  solutions  of  albumin  produced  an 
immediate  and  considerable  increase  in  the  excretion  of 
m'ea.  It  is  noticeable,  however,  that  his  results  show  that 
albumen  thus  injected  seems  to  be  more  slowly  decom- 
posed than  that  taken  in  the  food. 

Tschieriewf  has  compared  the  behavior  of  transfused 
blood  with  that  introduced  into  the  stomach,  with  the  fol- 
lowing results : 


Nitrogen  giveu. 
Grms. 

Nitrogen  excreted. 
Grms. 

Blood  fed 

13.19 

19.09 

,  14.38 

0.00 

18.53 

14.55 

' '      transfused 

6.85 

"      fed 

14.43 

No  food.     .            

4.65 

Blood  transfused 

10.60 

These  figures  show  plainly  that  the  albuminoids  of  the 
blood,  after  they  had  passed  through  the  digestive  appa- 

*  Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologie,  XI.,  49G. 

f  Biedermann's  '  Central-Blatt  fiir  Agr.  Chem.,'  X.,  98. 


128 


MANUAL   OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 


ratus,  were  much  more  readily  oxidized  in  the  body  than 

before. 


§  3.  Feeding  with  Protein  alone. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  the  various  factors 
which  determine  tlie  consumption  of  protein,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  its  deposition  on  the  other,  it  will  be  best,  in 
the  first  place,  to  consider  the  phenomena  produced  when 
the  several  nutrients  are  fed  alone,  and  afterward  the 
effect  of  two,  or  of  all  of  them  together. 

Consumption  dependent  on  Supply. — The  numerous 
researches  made  by  Yoit  ^  have  shown  most  f  idly  that 
the  consumption  of  jprotein  in  the  hody  is  largely  deter- 
mined hy  the  suj'jyly  ofjyrotein  in  the  food.  That  the  ex- 
cretion of  urea,  and  consequently  the  protein  consumption, 
was  influenced  by  the  food  to  a  very  considerable  extent, 
had  already  been  noticed,  but  this  observer  has  the  merit 
of  havmg  fully  investigated  the  subject  and  given  it  the 
prominence  it  deserved.  His  experiments  were  made 
chiefly  on  dogs ;  the  following  are  some  of  the  results 
obtained  in  different  experiments  on  the  same  dog  with 
a  diet  of  various  quantities  of  pure,  fat-free  meat : 


Meat  eaten  per  day. . . . 

Urea  excreted 

Corresponding  to  flesh. 


Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 
2,000 

Grms. 

0 

300 

500 

900 

1,200 

1,500 

2,500 

12 

32 

40 

68 

88 

106 

144 

173 

165 

442 

552 

938 

1,214 

1,463 

1,987 

2,387 

Orma. 

2,660 

181 

2,498 


The  consumption  of  flesh  varied  from  165  grms.  per 
day  during  hunger  to  nearly  2,500  grms.  with  the  largest 
amount  of  albuminoids  in  the  food,  and  almost  exactly  in 


*  Zeitschrift  f.  Biologie,  III.,  1. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


129 


proportion  to  the  amount  of  the  latter.  In  all  these  ex^ 
periments  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  protein  of  the  food 
was  converted  into  cirGulatory  protein,  which  was  rapidly 
consumed  in  the  vital  processes.  That  this  is  always  the 
case  o;i  a  purely  albuminoid  diet  is  shown  by  the  scores  of 
similar  experiments  which  might  be  cited. 

Similar  experiments  on  our  herbivorous  domestic  ani- 
mals have  given  in  the  main  the  same  result,  except  that 
the  protein  consumption  has  generally  been  found  to  be 
less  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  animal  than  in  the 
carnivora,  a  fact  which,  however,  as  we  shall  see,  is  in  great 
part  due  to  the  large  amount  of  non-nitrogenous  matter  in 
the  food  of  these  animals.  Gould  they  be  fed  on  pure 
protein,  as  was  the  dog  in  the  above  experunents,  it  is 
probable  that  the  protein  consumption  would  be  corrc 
spondingly  increased. 

The  Consumption  does  not  depend  on  the  Supply 
alone. — With  the  same  amount  of  protein  in  the  food  the 
protein  consumption  in  the  body  may  be  very  unequal  in 
the  same  animal  at  different  times,  as  the  following  results 
strikingly  show. 


Meat  eaten. 
Grms. 

Previous  food. 

Consumption 

of  flesh  per 

day. 

Grms. 

Gain  or  low 

of  flesh. 

Grms. 

2,000. 

2,500  grms.  meat. 

2,229 

-271 

2,000      "         "      +250  grms.  fat. 

2,0G9 

-    69 

1,500      " 

1,920 

+    80 

200      "         "      +300  gelatin. 

1,753 

+  247 

0 

1,677 

+  323 

450  grms.  starch. 

1,383 

+  617 

175     "      meat  +  300  fat. 

1,365 

+  635 

130 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


The  same  amount  of  food  caused  in  one  case  a  loss  of 
271  grms.  of  flesh,  and  in  another  a  gain  of  635  grms.,  and 
a  corresponding  variation  in  the  protein  consumption  is 
observed.  This  can  only  be  explained  by  the  difference  in 
the  previous  food.  Where,  by  an  abundant  supply  of  al- 
buminoids, a  large  amount  of  circulatory  jprotein  had  been 
formed  in  the  body,  a  decrease  of  the  albuminoids  of  the 
food  caused  a  decrease  in  the  protein  consumption,  but  not 
to  an  amount  corresponding  to  the  decrease  in  the  supply ; 
the  animal  lost  flesh.  On  the  other  hand,  an  increased 
supply  of  albuminoids  caused  an  increase  in  the  protein 
consumption ;  but  the  increase,  like  the  decrease  in  the 
other  case,  was  not  proportional  to  the  increased  supply, 
and  a  gain  of  flesh  resulted.  The  figures  of  the  above 
table  refer  to  the  first  day  of  the  new  feeding,  and  we 
gather  from  them  that  the  protein  consumption  is  depen- 
dent not  only  on  the  amoimt  of  protein  in  the  food  but  on 
the  bodily  condition  resulting  from  the  preceding  feeding. 

Equilibrium  soon  established  with  Food  Supply. — 
The  gain  or  loss  of  flesh  observed  on  the  first  day  after 
a  change  in  the  supply  of  protein  does  not  usually  con- 
tinue long.  Within  a  short  time — usually  two  to  four 
days— the  consumption  of  protein  in  the  body  becomes 
equal  to  the  amount  supplied  in  the  food,  and  no  further 
gain  or  loss  of  flesh  takes  place.  The  two  following  ex- 
amples may  serve  to  illustrate  this. 


Pood. 

Previous  food. 

Consumption  of  Flesh. 

Day  before. 

Ist  day. 

2d  day. 

3d  day. 

2,500  grms.  meat. 
2,000      " 

1,800  grms.  meat. 
2,500      " 

Grms. 

1,800 
2,500 

Grms. 

2,153 
2,229 

Grms. 

2,480 
1,970 

Grms. 

2,532 

MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  131 

In  each,  the  protein  consumption  was  in  equilibrium 
with  the  food  supply  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment. 
In  the  first  case  an  increase  of  700  grms.  in  the  amount  of 
meat  eaten  caused  a  rapid  increase  in  the  protein  consump- 
tion, till  in  three  days  the  two  were  again  nearly  in  equi- 
librium. In  the  second  experiment  the  same  thing  is 
observed  as  to  the  decrease  of  the  protein  consumption. 
The  gain  or  loss  of  flesh  in  either  case  is  very  trifling, 
amounting  respectively  to  335  grms.  and  199  grms.  in  a  dog 
weighing  about  35  kilogrammes.  Nearly  aU  of  the  addi- 
tional 700  grms.  per  day  in  the  first  experiment  was  con- 
verted into  circulatory  protein  and  rapidly  destroyed,  while 
in  the  second  the  subtraction  of  500  grms.  per  day  de- 
creased proportionately  the  reserve  of  circulatory  protein 
and  the  amount  consumed. 

The  experiments  given  above  are  simply  examples  taken 
from  a  large  number  of  similar  ones,  made  both  on  carnivora 
and  herbivora,  all  of  which  have  given  the  same  result, 
viz. :  the  cmimal  hody  jputs  itself^  after  a  longer  or  shorter 
time,  into  eqidlihrium  loith  whatever  quantity  of  albuinin- 
aids  it  receives  in  its  fodder  above  that  necessary  to  main- 
tain it  in  average  condition.  That  is,  a  certain  minimum 
quantity  of  albuminoids  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  starva- 
tion of  the  animal.  An  increase  of  the  supply  above  this 
quantity  causes  a  slight  gain  of  flesh  for  a  short  time,  but 
a  raj^id  increase  in  the  amount  of  circulatory  protein  and 
consequently  in  the  protein  consumption,  and,  finally,  ex- 
actly as  much  nitrogen  is  excreted  in  the  urine  (and  milk) 
as  is  taken  in  the  food.  We  might  compare  the  stock  of 
circulatory  protein  in  the  body  to  a  mass  of  water  con- 
tained in  a  vessel  with  a  small  aperture  in  the  bottom.  If 
there  is  no  supply,  it  quickly  runs  out.  If  a  small  stream 
of  water  be  let  in  at  the  top,  a  small  supply  of  water  may 


132  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDIXG. 

be  maintained  in  the  vessel.  If  a  larger  stream  be  ad 
mitted,  tlie  deptli  of  water  in  the  vessel  will  at  once  begin 
to  increase,  bnt,  at  the  same  time,  the  pressure  on  the  bot- 
tom, and  consequently  the  rapidity  of  the  outward  flow 
through  the  aperture,  increases,  and  outflow  and  inflow 
soon  come  into  equilibrium.  If  the  supply  be  diminished, 
the  level  of  the  water  sinks  till  the  hydrostatic  pressure 
causes  the  outflow  to  again  equal  the  inflow. 

The  Protein  Consumption  during  Fasting  is  not  a 
Measure  of  the  Amount  necessary  to  sustain  Life, 
as  was  formerly  assumed  to  be  the  case.  If  to  a  fasting 
animal  we  give  an  amount  of  protein  exactly  equal  to  that 
daily  consumed,  this  protein  is  converted  into  circidatory 
protein,  and  tlie  consumption  is  correspondingly  increased. 
In  order  to  maintain  an  animal  in  average  condition,  we 
must  give  it,  approximately,  from  two  to  two  and  a  half 
times  as  much  protein  in  its  food  as  is  consumed  in  the 
body  during  hunger,  and  when  the  food  has  been  rich  in 
albuminoids  a  much  greater  quantity  is  necessary  to  main- 
tain the  equilibrium  once  established. 

AVhen  equilibrium  is  once  reached,  either  by  a  gain  or 
loss  of  flesh,  as  the  case  may  be,  exactly  the  same  kind 
and  quantity  of  food  is  necessary  to  keep  the  animal  un- 
altered in  the  bodily  condition  in  which  it  then  is.  Every 
state  of  the  bod}^,  then,  demands  for  its  maintenance  a  cei-- 
tain  definite  fodder,  and  we  cannot  well  speak  of  a  super- 
fluous consumption  of  food  by  animals  as  by  plants,  /.  e.y 
of  a  whoUy  useless  and  unnecessary  excess  of  some  one  nu- 
trient. A  toaste  of  fodder  ^  however,  often  occurs  in  prac- 
tice, in  so  far  as  more  fodder  is  given  than  is  necessary  for 
the  object  in  view,  e.  g.,  in  the  production  of  milk  or  wool 
and  the  feeding  of  draught  animals  and  young  cattle. 
Even  in  fattening,  as  we  shall  see  later,  the  same  or  a  bet- 


MANUAL   OF    CATTLE-FEEDIlSrG. 


133 


ter  result  may  not  infrequently  be  obtained  with  a  fodder 
somewhat  poor  in  albuminoids  than  with  one  containing  a 
very  large  quantity  of  them. 

The  Rapidity  with  w^hieh  Equilibrium  is  estab- 
lished varies. — It  is  greater  the  richer  the  food  is  in  al- 
buminoids and  the  less  fat  is  contained  in  the  body ;  in 
general,  therefore,  in  the  carnivora  than  in  the  herbivora. 

The  influence  of  the  fat  of  the  body  in  decreasing  the 
protein  consumption  is  of  great  importance.  It  has  been 
proved  beyond  a  doubt  that  in  a  fat  body,  the  mass  of 
flesh,  the  food,  etc.,  being  the  same,  the  protein  consump- 
tion is  less  than  in  a  lean  body.  It  is  not,  however,  sim- 
ply the  absolute  quantity  of  fat,  but  rather  its  amount 
relatively  to  that  of  the  flesh  which  is  the  important  point. 

But  not  only  is  the  protein  consumption  less  in  a  fat 
body,  ceteris  jparihus^  but  the  rapidity  with  which  equili- 
brium is  reached  after  a  change  in  the  food  is  less. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  two  experiments,  A  on 
a  lean  animal  (dog),  B  on  a  fat  one : 


Increase  of  meat 
in  food. 
Grms. 

Equilibrium  on 

Gain  of  flesh. 
Grms. 

Gam  in  per  cent, 
of  increased  food. 

A 
B 

1,800 
1,620 

3d  day. 
6th  " 

309 
1,365 

17 

84 

A  smaller  increase  of  protein  in  the  food  of  the  fat  ani- 
mal caused  both  a  relatively  and  absolutely  greater  gain  of 
flesh,  which  also  continued  twice  as  long.  Numerous  other 
examples  of  the  same  eft'ect  might  be  adduced,  were  it  ne- 
cessary. 

As  a  consequence  of  this  fact,  a  gain  of  flesh  can  be 
made  more  readily  by  herbivora  than  by  carnivora,  since 


134  MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

the  former  are,  as  is  well  known,  much  inclined  to  the  lay- 
ing on  of  fat,  and  even  when  in  medium  condition  gener- 
ally contain  relativ^ely  a  much  larger  quantity  of  that  sub- 
stance than  the  carnivora.  For  the  same  reason  we  may 
often  increase  disproportionately  the  amount  of  albumin- 
oids in  the  food  of  the  herbivora  without  ha^^ng  to  fear 
that  it  will  all  be  converted  into  circulatory  protein  and 
rapidly  consumed.  Good  results  may  often  be  attained  in 
this  way,  but  we  should  never,  with  these  animals,  leave 
out  of  account  the  bodily  condition  caused  by  the  previous 
foddering.  In  the  beginning  of  fattening,  especially,  the 
most  appropriate  fodder  must  be  essentially  different  ac- 
cording to  whether  we  have  to  do  with  lean  and  "run 
down "  animals  or  with  those  which  are  already  in  good 
condition. 

Effect  of  Salt  on  Protein  Consumption. — A  mod- 
erate addition  of  salt  to  the  fodder  increases  the  circulation 
of  the  juices  of  the  body,  and  consequently  the  protein  con- 
sumption ;  but  the  salt  secures  advantages,  especially  in  the 
herbivora,  which  have  already  been  spoken  of.  The  feed- 
ing of  salt  is  therefore  especially  in  place  when  a  greater 
energy  of  all  the  vital  functions  is  desired,  as  in  horses 
and  well-fed  working  oxen,  in  young  animals,  and  in  male 
breeding  animals,  etc.,  while  in  fattening  only  so  much 
should  be  given  as  is  necessary  to  render  the  fodder  sa- 
vory, and  is  demanded  for  the  normal  nourishment  of  the 
animal. 

Another  action  of  salt  is  to  increase  the  excretion  of 
m*ine,  often  very  considerably. 

This  is  observed  especially  when  the  animal  is  pre- 
vented from  much  drinking,  either  purposely  or  in  any 
other  way.  For  the  excretion  of  larger  quantities  of  salt, 
more  water  is  necessary,  and  this  is  withdrawn,  in  the  first 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  135 

place,  from  that  excreted  by  evaporation  through  the  lungs 
and  skin,  and,  if  this  is  not  sufficient,  from  the  body  itself. 
The  live  weight  can  therefore  sink  rapidly  when  large 
doses  of  salt  and  little  water  are  given,  while  afterward, 
on  the  other  hand,  if  more  water  is  drunk,  much  of  it  may 
be  laid  up  in  the  tissues,  and  the  live-weight  of  the  animal 
be  again  increased. 

Influence  of  Water  on  the  Protein  Consumption. 
— Giving  too  large  quantities  of  salt  to  animals  is  to  be 
avoided  for  still  another  reason,  viz. :  that  the  animals  are 
led  to  drink  large  quantities  of  water,  if  they  have  access 
to  it.  This  causes  an  increased  protein  consumption,  that 
is,  an  increased  destruction  of  valuable  fodder  materials, 
especially  when  the  larger  quantity  of  water  is  not  retained 
in  the  tissues  but  is  rapidly  removed  by  an  increased  ex- 
cretion of  urine. 

Experiments  by  Yoit  on  fasting  animals  showed  an  in- 
crease of  the  protein  consumption  in  this  way  by  as  much 
as  25  per  cent.,  and,  according  to  observations  by  Henne- 
berg,*  in  Weende,  on  oxen,  the  increase  of  the  protein 
consumption,  when  the  amount  of  water  was  increased 
22.4  per  cent.,  averaged  5.8  per  cent.  Even  the  last  named 
increase  is  by  no  means  insignificant ;  it  amounts  to  a  third, 
or  perhaps  even  a  half  of  the  protein  which  otherwise 
might  have  been  deposited  in  the  body.  In  any  case,  in 
order  to  get  the  most  advantageous  results  possible,  espe- 
cially in  the  feeding  of  young  animals  and  in  fattening, 
we  must  avoid  everything  which  involves  or  leads  to  an 
excessive  use  of  water ;  e.  g.^  too  watery  fodder,  too  high 
a  temperature  of  the  stall,  too  much  salt,  too  much  move- 
ment, etc.  This  is  more  especially  to  be  observed  in  re- 
gard to  sheep,  since  these  animals  drink  voluntarily  much 
♦  ''Neue  Beitrage,"  etc.,  1871,  p.  397. 


136 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


less  water  in  proportion  to  the  dry  matter  of  tlieir  fodder 
than  cattle.  In  round  numbers,  the  normal  amount  of 
water  (in  food  and  drink  together)  may  be  stated  as  4  lbs. 
per  pound  of  dry  matter  of  the  fodder  for  cattle,  and  half 
that  quantity  for  sheep. 

In  milk-giving  animals  an  increased  consumption  of 
water  is  less  disadvantageous,  and  may  indeed  cause  an 
increased  milk-production ;  but  in  this  case,  also,  it  is  un- 
doubtedly advisable  not  to  exceed  a  certain  limit  as  to  the 
proportion  of  w^ater  in  the  fodder. 

The  EfFeet  of  Stimulants  on  the  protein  consumption 
seems  to  be  inappreciable.  The  action  on  the  nervous  sys- 
tem seems  to  be  caused  by  so  minute  a  metamorphosis  of 
albuminoid  substance  that  it  has  no  significance  compared 
with  the  total  protein  consumption  in  the  body.  It  is, 
however,  another  and  as  yet  undecided  question  whether 
the  increased  nervous  activity  may  not  cause  an  increased 
consumption  of  fat  in  the  body,  as  does  muscular  exer- 
tion, e.  g. 


§  4.  Feeding  with  Fat  or  Carbhydrates  Alone. 

Fat  alone  does  not  decrease  the  Protein  Con- 
sumption.— This  is  showTi  plainly  by  the  following  results 
obtained  by  Voit  *  on  a  dog : 


Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms, 

Grms. 

Fat  per  day 

Flesh  consumption. 

0 

170 

100 

185 

200 
155 

300 

187 

300 
165 

340 
205 

350 
291 

We  see  at  once  that  even  the  largest  rations  of  fat  are 
not  able  to  stop  or  decrease  the  loss  of  flesh  from  the 

♦  Zeitschrif t  f.  Biologie,  V. ,  329- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


137 


body,  but  seems  rather  to  increase  it  slightly.  This  latter 
effect  has  been  observed  in  other  experiments,  and  appears 
to  be  due  to  the  influence  of  the  fat  in  drawing  into  cir- 
culation the  organized  protein  of  the  body.  It  shows  it- 
self still  more  markedly  when,  along  with  the  fat,  an 
amount  of  albuminoids  not  sufficient  to  balance  the  con- 
sumption is  given. 

The  effect  is  in  every  case  small,  and  this  action  of  fat 
is  far  more  than  counterbalanced  by  another  which  shows 
itself  when  it  is  fed  along  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
protein. 

Carbhydrates  alone  do  not  decrease  the  Protein 
Consumption  any  more  than  does  fat.  The  same  amount 
of  protein  is  oxidized  and  destroyed  in  the  body  as  in  the 
complete  absence  of  food.  They  differ  from  fat,  however, 
in  the  fact  that  they  do  not,  like  the  former,  slightly  in- 
crease the  protein  consumption.  They  are  simply  without 
effect  on  it  when  fed  exclusively. 

§  5.  Feeding  with  Protein  and  Fat. 

The  Protein  Consumption  is  determined  chiefly 
by  the  Supply  of  it  in  the  Food,  just  as  it  is  in  feed- 
ing exclusively  with  albuminoids,  and  any  increase  in  the 
amount  of  the  latter  causes  a  corresponding  increase  in 
the  former.  Thus,  Yoit  {JyOC.  cit.)  obtained  the  following 
results : 


Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

Grms. 

(  Fat 

250 
150 
233 

300 
176 
259 

250 
250 
270 

200 
500 

502 

200 
800 

778 

250 

Food-^ 

(Meat 

1,500 

Consumption  of  flesh  per  day 

1,381 

138 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


It  is  evident  tliat  the  protein  consumption  in  the  body 
is  greater,  the  larger  the  amount  of  protein  in  the  food. 
The  increase,  however,  is  not  quite  as  great  as  it  would 
have  been  without  the  fat ;  for,  other  things  being  equal. 

Fat  decreases  the  Protein  Consumption,  and  there- 
fore increases  the  deposition  of  flesh  in  the  body.  This  is 
most  plainly  shown  if,  after  the  body  is  in  equilibrium 
wdth  a  certain  quantity  of  albuminoids,  fat  be  added  to  the 
food.  The  following  example  from  Yoit's  researches  illus- 
trates this  fact : 


Food. 

Urea  per  day. 
Grms. 

Flesh  consump- 

Date. 

Meat. 
Grms. 

Fat. 
Grms. 

tion  in  body. 
Grms. 

July  31 

Aug.l 

"    2 

"    3 

1,000 
1,000 
1,000 
1,000 

0 
100 
300 

0 

81.7 
74.5 
69.3 
81.2 

1,140 

1,042 

970 

1,134 

While  the  animal,  when  fed  with  1,000  grammes  of 
meat,  was  losing  daily  about  140  grammes  of  flesh,  the 
addition  of  300  grammes  of  fat  served  not  only  to  prevent 
this  loss,  but  to  cause  a  slight  gain. 

This  decrease  of  the  protein  consumption  is  not  very 
considerable  in  a  single  day,  amounting,  in  the  dog  used  by 
Yoit,  to  at  most  168  grammes  of  flesh,  or  45  grammes  of 
dry  protein,  and  varying  from  1  to  15  per  cent,  of  the  total 
consumption.  Its  amount  depends  not  only  on  the  protein 
and  fat  of  the  food  but  also  on  the  condition  of  the  ani- 
mal. The  greater  the  amount  of  circulatory  protein  in 
the  body,  and  the  less  fat  it  contains,  the  more  of  the  pro- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  139 

tein  of  tlie  food  is  converted  into  circulatory  protein  and 
consumed. 

The  Decrease  of  the  Protein  Consumption  is  no 
greater  with  a  large  than  with  a  small  Ration  of 
Albuminoids,  if  the  quantity  of  fat  remains  tlie  same. 
This,  indeed,  follows  from  the  statements  of  the  first 
paragraph.  An  increase  of  the  albuminoids  of  the  food 
causes  more  circulatory  protein  to  be  formed,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  increases  the  consumption ;  and  while  the 
latter  is  less  than  it  would  be  without  the  fat,  the  difference 
is  not  notably,  if  at  all,  greater  than  with  the  smaller 
amount  of  albuminoids. 

The  addition  of  the  fat  simply  makes  the  consumption 
of  protein  less  than  it  would  he  without  it  lender  the  same 
circumstances  ;  but  this  comparatively  small  decrease  may 
sometimes  make  all  the  difference  between  a  continual  loss 
of  flesh  from  the  body  and  a  state  of  equilibrium,  or  even 
a  gain  of  flesh,  and  thus  may  be  a  most  important  factor 
in  feeding,  as  illustrated  in  the  experiments  in  the  previous 
paragraph. 

A  dog  weighing  35  kilogrammes  (77  lbs.),  when  fed  ex- 
clusively on  pure  meat,  needs  about  1,500  grammes  daily 
in  order  to  remain  in  good  condition  and  in  equilibrium 
as  regards  nitrogen.  If,  instead  of  this,  he  receives  only 
500  grammes,  he  loses,  for  a  number  of  days,  about  150 
grammes  daily  of  his  own  flesh  ;  and  if,  after  a  considera- 
ble time,  he  comes  into  equilibrium  with  the  smaller 
ration,  he  is  wasted  away  and  in  wretched  condition.  But 
if,  along  with  the  500  grammes  of  meat,  about  200 
grammes  of  fat  be  given,  this  loss  of  flesh  is  speedily 
checked,  and  when  the  protein  consumption  has  come 
into  equilibrium  with  the  supply  the  animal  remains  in  a 
Round  and  well-nourished  condition.     The  addition  of  200 


140  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

grammes  of  fat  so  decreases  the  protein  consumption,  whicli 
was  before  greater  than  tlie  supply,  causing  the  animal  to 
lose  flesh  constantly,  that  it  is  now  equal  to  the  latter,  or 
perhaps,  in  some  cases,  less,  so  that  a  gain  of  flesh  results. 
That  is,  we  can  keep  the  same  amount  of  flesh  on  such  an 
animal  by  feeding  500  grammes  of  meat  and  200  grammes 
of  fat,  as  by  feeding  1,500  grammes  of  pure  meat.  In 
the  former  case,  although  the  supply  of  protein  is  much 
less,  the  consumption  of  it  in  the  body  is  correspondingly 
less ;  and  though  the  animal  may  be  less  lively  and  ener- 
getic in  its  motions  on  this  account,  it  may  still  be  main- 
tained in  good  condition  for  any  length  of  time  on  such  a 
ration  without  the  least  injury  to  its  health. 

That  the  protein  consumption,  as  above  stated,  is  less  than 
when  1,500  grammes  of  meat  are  fed  is  due,  in  great  part, 
to  the  decreased  supply  of  albuminoids,  the  effect  of  this 
being  the  same  as  when  only  albuminoids  are  fed,  as  was  ex- 
plained and  illustrated  in  the  first  paragraph  of  this  section. 

The  effect  of  the  addition  of  the  fat  is  simply  to  de- 
crease the  consumption  a  little  more ;  Lut  this  little  carries 
it  past  the  pomt  of  equilibrium,  and  so  prevents  the  con- 
tinual loss  of  flesh  which  takes  place  without  it.  The 
animal  may  even  gain  flesh  on  such  a  ration.  In  this 
case,  therefore,  the  addition  of  200  grammes  of  fat  has 
saved  1,000  grammes  of  meat,  as  compared  with  a  purely 
flesh  diet.  We  are  not,  however,  to  understand  that  if  to 
the  large  ration  of  1,500  grammes  of  meat  we  add  200 
grammes  of  fat,  the  daily  flesh  consumption  will  sink  at 
once  to  500  grammes  or  less,  and  that  1,000  grammes 
of  flesh  will  be  formed  in  the  body.  The  protein  con- 
sumption, as  already  insisted  on,  is  dependent  in  the  first 
place  on  the  supply  of  albuminoids  in  the  food,  and  an  in- 
«tease  of  the  latter  correspondingly  increases  the  former ; 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING.  141 

SO  that,  while  a  large  quantity  of  protein  would  be  daily 
consumed  in  the  body  with  the  large  ration  of  albumin- 
oids, the  gain  of  flesh  would  be  no  greater,  and  might  be 
even  less,  than  with  the  smaller  ration. 

Fat  may  cause  a  long-continued  Gain  of  Flesh. — 
We  have  seen  that  any  gain  of  flesh  caused  by  an  increase 
of  the  albuminoids  of  the  food  continues  but  a  short  time. 
The  additional  albuminoids  increase  chiefly  the  amount  of 
circulatory  protein  in  the  body  and  consequently  the  pro- 
tein consumption,  and  equilibrium  between  the  food  and 
the  body  is  speedily  established. 

If,  however,  the  gain  of  flesh  is  caused  by  the  addition 
of  fat  to  the  food,  the  case  is  different. 

The  fat  seems  to  favor  the  formation  of  tissue,  i.  e.,  of 
the  more  stable  organized  protein,  which  is  less  easily  oxi- 
dized, and  consequently,  as  is  fomid  by  experiment,  the 
gain  of  flesh  caused  in  this  way  may  continue  for  a  com- 
paratively long  time,  so  that  although  the  saving  of  protein 
effected  by  the  fat  may  not  be  great  in  a  single  day,  the 
total  result  is  very  considerable.  It  has  been  already 
shown  (p.  133)  that  the  fat  deposited  in  the  body  has  the 
same  effect  in  this  respect  as  that  of  the  food. 

The  Gain  of  Flesh  continues  much  longer  on  a  me- 
dium than  on  a  large  Ration  of  Albuminoids. — The 
following  experiments  (see  page  142)  illustrate  this. 

The  total  gain  up  to  the  beginning  of  nitrogen  equili- 
brimn  is  seen  to  be  in  general  no  greater,  and  often  less, 
with  a  large  than  with  a  medium  ration  of  albuminoids. 
In  details  exceptions  are  to  be  expected,  since  the  experi- 
ments were  not  all  made  consecutively,  and  since  not  only 
the  supply  of  food  but  the  bodily  condition  has  much  to 
do  with  the  gain  of  flesh. 

In  order,  then,  to  obtain  as  great  and  long-continued  a 


142 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Length  of  Experi- 

Food. 

Total  gain 
of  flesh. 
Grms. 

Gain  per 
day. 
Grms. 

Whether 

ment. 
.  Days. 

Fat. 
Gnns. 

Meat. 
Grms. 

nitrogen 
equilibrium. 

32 

250 
200 
250 
250 
250 
150 
30-150 
250 
250 

500 
800 
1,000 
1,250 
1,500 
1,500 
1,500 
1,800 
2,000 

1,794 
320 
375 
294 
476 
104 
889 
854 
353 

56 
80 

125 
98 

119 
10 
38 

122 

117 

Not  yet. 

4 

3. 

Nearly. 

3 

4 

a 

10 

Quite. 
Nearly. 

Quite. 
Nearly 

23 

7 

3 

deposition  of  flesli  in  the  body  of  a  dog,  e.g.,  as  possible, 
we  should  not  feed  large  quantities  of  meat  with  fat. 
The  absolute  quantity  of  albuminoids  in  the  food  does 
not  detennine  the  gain,  but  only  the  protein  consumption. 
Neither  is  it  the  absolute  quantity  of  fat  that  determines 
the  gain,  but  the  relation  between  the  two,  together  with 
the  bodily  condition. 

This  being  the  case,  we  should  first  endeavor  to  ascer- 
tain what  ratio  of  albuminoids  to  fat  gave  the  best  results, 
and  then,  ha\dng  compounded  a  ration  in  accordance  with 
this,  should  endeavor  to  induce  the  animal  to  eat  as  nmch 
as  possible  of  it.  Two  extremes  ought  to  be  equally 
avoided ;  too  much  albuminoids  would  cause  an  unneces- 
sary protein  consumption  in  the  body,  while  if  the  ration 
contained  an  excess  of  fat,  it  might  be  impossible  for  the 
animal  to  eat  enough  of  it  to  supply  himself  with  the 
necessary  amoimt  of  protein. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  143 

In  the  fodder  of  the  herbivora  the  action  of  fat  in  de- 
creasing the  protein  consumption  does  not  show  itself  so 
plainly,  its  action  being  masked  by  the  presence  of  large 
quantities  of  carbhydrates,  which,  as  we  shall  see,  have  an 
effect  similar  to  that  of  fat. 

Moreover,  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  fodder  of  the  rumi- 
nants cannot  safely  exceed  a  certain  easily-reached  limit. 
Small  quantities  of  fat  exert  in  general  a  favorable  influ- 
ence ;  larger  quantities,  however,  are  often  very  injurious, 
causing  disturbance  of  the  digestion  and  an  increasing  lack 
of  appetite.  The  different  modifications  of  fat,  however, 
behave  very  differently  in  this  respect,  and  the  fat  of  the 
food  certainly  deserves  attention,  especially  in  the  feeding 
of  young  animals  and  in  fattening,  and  likewise  in  case  of 
horses,  and  in  general  whenever  the  fodder  is  rich  in  al- 
buminoids. 

§  6.  Feeding  with  Protein  and  Carbhydrates. 

The  Carbhydrates  act  analogously  to  Fat  on  the 

consumption  of  protein  and  its  deposition  in  the  body. 
Like  it,  they  do  not  suspend  the  protein  consumption, 
wliich  increases  or  decreases  with  the  amount  of  protein 
in  the  food ;  like  it,  they  decrease  the  protein  con- 
sumption somewhat,  but  not  greatly;  like  it,  too,  they 
enable  an  animal  to  subsist  or  even  gain  flesh  on  a  mucli 
smaller  quantity  of  albuminoids  in  its  food  than  would 
suffice  were  the  ration  composed  of  pure  protein. 

The  action  of  the  carbhydrates  on  the  formation  of  flesh 
has  been  investigated  both  in  carnivorous  and  herbivorous 
animals. 

In  the  previous  sections  we  have  been  occupied  exclu- 
sively with  experiments  on  carnivora,  for  the  reason  that 


144  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

it  is  practically  impossible  to  feed  herbivorous  animals  on 
pure  protein  or  protein  and  fat ;  but  the  general  principles 
deduced  fi-om  the  experiments  on  carnivora  are  applicable 
also  to  herbivorous  animals.  In  the  present  section  we 
shall  give  special  prominence  to  experiments  on  domestic 
herbivorous  animals,  and  shall  take  occasion  to  point  out, 
in  passing,  some  confirmations  of  the  results  obtained  on 
carnivora  by  Yoit  and  others. 

The  ordinary  fodder  of  herbivorous  animals,  leaving  out 
of  consideration,  for  the  present,  water  and  mineral  matters, 
consists  essentially  of  protein  and  carbhydrates  with  small 
quantities  of  fat. 

A  large  number  of  experiments  on  these  animals  have 
been  made.  As  of  especial  importance  for  our  present 
purpose  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Grouven,"^  at  Salz- 
miinde,  and  of  Henneberg  &  Stohmann,t  at  Weende,  on 
oxen ;  those  of  G.  Iviihn  &  M.  Fleischer,  j;.  at  Mockern, 
on  milk  cows ;  and  those  of  E.  Schulze  &  M.  Marcher,  §  in 
Weende,  on  sheep. 

Of  these,  the  Weende  experiments  on  oxen  in  particular 
are  of  the  highest  value,  both  for  oiu*  present  purpose  and 
many  others,  halving  been  executed  in  the  most  careful 
and  thoroughly  scientific  manner. 

The  Protein  Consumption  is  Determined  by  the 
Supply  in  the  Food. — The  following  experiments  on 
oxen  by  Henneberg  &  Stohmann  {loc.  cit.),  in  which  the 
amount  of  protein  in  the  food  varies  while  that  of  the 
non-nitrogenous   nutrients  remains  essentially  the  same, 

*  Z welter  Salzmiinde  Bericht,  1864. 

f  "  Beitrage  zur  Begriindung  einer  Rationellen  Futterung"  der  Wie- 
derkauer,"  1864,  and  "  Neue  Beitriige,"  etc.,  1871. 
:{:  Landw.  Versuchs-Stationen,  XII.,  197  and  450. 
§  Journal  fiir  Landwirthschaft,  1870  and  1871. 


MAKtJAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


145 


illustrate  this  fact,  which  is  shown  also  in  all  the  other 
experiments  cited. 

The  non-nitrogenous  matter  of  the  food  here  includes 
the  fat  reduced  to  its  equivalent  of  starch  (p.  157) ;  the 
numbers  in  the  last  three  columns  express  dry  protein 
(nitrogen  x  6.25)  and  not  fresh  flesh. 


No.  of  Experiment. 

Non-nitroge- 
nous matter  di- 
gested. 
Lbs.* 

Protein  di- 
gested. 
Lbs. 

Protein 

consumption. 

Lbs. 

Gain  of  Protein. 
Lbs. 

1860-1861. 

,17 

10.23 

1.50 

1.00 

0.50 

hs 

10.10 

2.06 

1.43 

0.63 

•      |25 

14.60 

2.50 

2.12 

0.38 

28 

14.49 

3.37 

2.75 

0.62 

^21 

14.08 

2.19 

1.13 

1.06 

(20 

13.73 

3.00 

1.81 

1.19 

1865. 

Av.  of  5  &  6. 

11.60 

0.84 

0.86 

-0.02 

Av.  of  4,7&8. 

11.95 

2.52 

1.99 

0.53 

These  results  show  plainly  that  the  addition  of  more 
protein  to  a  fodder  causes  chiefly  an  increase  in  the  circu- 
latory protein  of  the  body,  and  to  a  far  less  degree  a  gain 
of  flesh,  and  fully  confirm  the  conclusions  drawn  from  sim- 
ilar experiments  on  dogs.  At  the  same  time  it  is  obvious 
that  in  these  experiments  there  was  a  greater  tendency  to- 
ward the  laying  on  of  flesh  than  was  the  case  in  those  on 
carnivora ;  a  larger  proportion  of  the  total  protein  of  the 


*  German  pounds. 

7* 


1  lb.  German  =  1.1  lb.  av. 


146 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


ration  and  of  the  added  protein  went  to  form  organized 
protein. 

Some  experiments  on  goats  by  Stolimann,*  which  strik- 
ingly illustrate  the  influence  of  the  supply  on  the  protein 
consumption,  may  also  be  mentioned.  The  following  table 
contains  all  the  essential  data : 


Date  of  Experi- 
ment. 

FoDDEB  PEB  Day. 

Protein  di- 
gested 
per  day. 
Grms. 

Protein 
consump- 
tion t 

per  day. 
Grms. 

Gain  of  pro- 

Hay. 
Grms. 

Linseed 
meal. 
Grms. 

tein 

per  day. 

Grms. 

1. 

May  23-29.. 

1,500 

100 

111.6 

66.6 

1.9 

2.  1  June  G-12  .. 

1,450 

150 

125.0 

79.4 

9.0 

3. 

"  20-26.. 

1,400 

200 

132.2 

90.6 

11.1 

4. 

July  4-10. . . 

1,350 

250 

150.9 

90.1 

23.4 

5. 

"    25-31.. 

1,250 

350 

170.5 

101.6 

18.3 

6. 

Aug.  8-14  . . 

1,100 

500 

193.8 

117.9 

27.4 

7. 

"    22-28.. 

950 

650 

221.4 

143.1 

30.6 

8. 

Sept.  5-11.. 

800 

800 

257.2 

173.7 

27.4 

9. 

"     19-25.. 

1,600a. 

0 

92.9 

56.3 

-4.4 

10. 

Oct.  3-9.... 

1,600^'. 

0 

74.1 

41.9 

6.4 

Nothing  could  be  more  evident  than  the  dependence  of 
the  protein  consimiption  on  the  supply  in  these  experi- 
ments. 

We  have  seen  that  in  a  fasting  dog  the  protein  con- 
sumption is  at  once  increased  by  even  the  smallest  ration 
of  meat.     Some  experiments  by  Grouven  {J.oc.  cit.)  seem 


*  "  Biologische  Studien,"  Heft  1,  p.  121. 

f  Exclusive  of  the  protein  contained  in  the  milk,  which  varied  but 
slightly. 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


147 


to  indicate  that  the  effect  on  the  herbivora  may  be  differ  ^ 
ent. 

He  observed  that  in  full-grown  oxen  the  protein  con- 
sumption was  decidedly  less  on  a  ration  of  rye-straw  than 
during  hunger,  and  that  the  addition  of  pure  non-nitroge- 
nous nutrients  to  the  straw  decreased  it  still  more. 


Ox  No.  I. 


Fodder  per  day. 

Live 

weight. 

Lbs. 

Nitrogen 

digested. 

Grms. 

Consump- 
tion of  flesh. 
Grms. 

Loss 
of  flesh. 
Grms. 

0    

1,019 
959 
990 
968 

5.2 
3.2 
4.6 

950 
475 
250 
230 

625 

8.7  IbB.  straw 

336 

6.6        "         +2.2  lbs.  sugar. 
6.5        "         +3.3      " 

176 
110 

Ox  No.  II. 

0 

791 

777 
799 
781 

5.5 

2.7 
3.0 

1,109 
360 
250 
395 

640 

6.6  lbs.  straw 

218 

5.3         ''        -f2.2  lbs.  sugar. 
5.3        ♦'         +-3.3      *' 

191 
320 

Ox  No.  IIL 

0 

1,150 
1,155 

0.5 

1,427 
771 

1,525 

9.2  lbs.  straw 

757 

The  accuracy  of  these  results  is  impaired  by  the  facts 
that  between  the  experimental  periods  the  animals  re- 
ceived an  abimdant  but  not  uniform  fodder,  and  that  the 
preliminary  feeding  was  in  each  case  so  short  (3  to  6  days) 


148  MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

as  to  render  it  doubtful  whether  the  effect  of  the  new  fod- 
der was  fully  established. 

Furthermore,  the  dung  often  contained  almost  as  much, 
and  sometimes  even  more  nitrogen  than  the  fodder,  show- 
ing that  the  former  contained  considerable  quantities  of 
nitrogenous  matters  coming  from  the  body.  The  result 
of  this,  of  course,  is  that  the  numbers  for  digested  pro- 
tein and  for  the  consumption  of  flesh  are  too  low ;  those 
for  the  loss  of  flesh  (nitrogen  of  fodder  less  that  of  dung 
and  urme),  however,  are  unaffected  by  this  source  of  error. 

If  we  are  to  accept  this  result  of  Grouven's  as  correct, 
we  must  ascribe  it  to  the  large  quantities  of  non-nitrogen- 
ous matter  which  were  digested  along  with  the  small 
amount  of  protein,  and  which  would  tend  to  diminish  the 
protein  consumption.  This  action  of  the  carbhydrates  is 
seen  also  in  most  of  the  experiments  in  which  these  sub- 
stances were  added  to  the  straw. 

Of  somewhat  the  same  nature  as  Grouven's  results  are 
those  which  show  that  addition  of  protein  to  a  fodder  poor 
in  this  substance  may  cause  a  considerable  gain  of  flesh. 

The  experiments  by  G.  Kiihn  &  M.  Fleischer  Q^oc.  cit.\ 
on  cows,  serve  to  illustrate  this.  Two  cows  were  fed  dur- 
ing a  first  period  with  hay,  either  alone  or  with  the  addi- 
tion of  starch,  and  in  a  second  period  a  nitrogenous  bye- 
fodder  was  added.  The  hay  used  contained  an  unusually 
small  quantity  of  protein  (Nutr.  ratio,  1 :  12),  and  a  com- 
paratively small  amount  of  it  was  consumed,  so  that  the 
food  in  the  first  period  was  far  from  rich.  Even  the  addi- 
tion of  the  nitrogenous  bye-fodder  in  the  second  period 
did  not  make  it  particularly  so,  but  it  nevertheless  caused 
a  considerable  gain  of  flesh,  which  continued  for  some 
time. 

The  experiments  covered,  including    the    preliminary 


MANtJAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


149 


feeding,  from  twenty-two  to  twenty-four  days,  and  the 
gain  in  the  last  six  days  was  fully  equal  to  that  at  the  be- 
ginning. The  table  shows  the  results  obtained  during  the 
experiment  proper  (exclusive  of  the  preliminary  feeding), 
and  also  the  protein  consmnption  and  the  gain  of  protein 
for  the  last  five  days  of  the  feeding  with  nitrogenous  bye- 
fodder. 

Cow  No.  I. 


Fodder. 

DIGESTED  FEB  iJAT. 

Nutr. 
ratio  1  : 

Protein 
consump- 
tion 
per  day. 
Grms. 

Gain 

Date. 

Protein. 
Grms. 

Carbhy- 
drates. 
Grms. 

of  protein 

per  day. 

Grms. 

Dec  26-Jan  6 

Hav        

393 
680 

4,800 
4,985 

12.2 
T.3 

187 

(343 
1345 

-5.9 

Jan. 17-Peb.  1  1 
"    27-    "    If- 

Hay  and  rape-cake 

+  124.7 
+  117.8 

Cow  No.  II. 


Feb.  16-iIar.  3. 


Mar.  12-27  1 
"    22-27  1 


Hay  and  starch . 
Hay  and  beans. . 


728 


5,550 
5,570 


14.1 
7.6 


156 


40.0 


+  182.2 
+  181.9 


The  addition  of  protein  to  a  ration  poor  in  this  sub- 
stance caused  a  considerable  gain  of  flesh  by  the  animals. 
At  the  same  time,  it  did  not  fail  to  affect  the  protein  con- 
sumption, approximately  doubling  it  in  each  case.  We 
conclude,  then,  that  in  the  case  of  the  herbivora  protein 
added  to  a  ration  does  not  pass  so  promptly  and  com- 
pletely into  circulatory  protein  as  it  does  in  the  carnivora, 
but  may  cause  a  considerable  gain  of  flesh.  This  inclina- 
tion toward  the  formation  of  organized  rather  than  circu- 
latory protein  seems  to  be  a  characteristic  of  the  herbivora, 
perhaps  due  in  part  to  the  large  amounts  of  non-nitrogen- 
ous food  which  they  consume  and  in  part  to  the  consider- 


150 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


able  quantities  of  fat  usually  laid  up  in  tlieir  bodies,  and 
is  a  circumstance  favorable  to  economy  in  feedino;. 

But  though  increasing  the  proportion  of  protein  in  a 
ration  may  cause  a  gain  of  flesh,  the  experiments  by  Stoh- 
mann,  already  cited,  show  that  when  the  food  is  already 
rich  in  this  substance  the  gain  is  much  smaller  and  is 
accompanied  by  a  greatly  increased  protein  consump- 
tion. 

Carbhydrates  decrease  the  Protein  Consumption. 
— The  following  experiments  by  Yoit  "^  on  a  dog  show  that 


Food. 

Flesh 

Date  of  Experiment. 

Meat. 
Grms. 

Carbhydrates. 
Grms. 

consumption. 
Grms. 

June  23-July  2,  1859 

July  2-5,  1859 

500 
500 

300-100 
0 

502 
564 

July    4-10, 18G4 

800 
800 
800 

0 

100-400 
0 

826 

*'    10-19,    "     

763 

"    19-20,   "    

895 

July  23-26,  1864 

1,000 
1,000 
1,000 

0 

100-400 

0 

1,028 

"   26-28,     "     

902 

"   28-Aug.  1,  1864 

1,112 

June  29-July    8, 1863 

July  8-     ''      13,    "    

1,500 
1,500 

0 
200 

1,599 
1,454 

Jan.  6, 1859 

2,000 
2,000 

0 

200-300 

1,991 

"    7-11,  1859 

1,792 

*  Zeitschrift  f.  Biologie,  V.,  434. 


MAlSrUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


151 


the  carbhydrates  exert  the  same  influence  on  the  protein 
consumption  as  does  fat,  viz. :  render  it  less  than  it  other- 
wise would  be. 

In  almost  every  case  the  effect  of  the  addition  of  carb- 
hydrates was  not  only  to  decrease  the  protein  consumption 
but  to  render  it  less  than  the  supply,  and  thus  to  cause  a 
gain  of  flesh  instead  of  the  loss  which  had  been  taking 
place. 

The  action  of  the  carbhydrates  in  decreasing  the  protein 
consumption  is  also  to  be  seen  in  experiments  on  herbivora, 
though  in  these  it  is  seldom  so  sharply  expressed  as 
in  the  results  just  given,  because  these  animals,  in  any 
case,  receive  large  amounts  of  carbhydrates  and  the 
effect  of  a  further  addition  is  therefore  comparatively 
small. 

Grouven's  experiments  show  plainly  the  decrease  of 
the  protein  consumption  caused  by  the  addition  of  sugar, 
even  to  straw  fodder,  which  of  itself  contains  much  carb- 
hydrates and  little  protein. 

Some  of  Henneberg  &  Stohmann's  experiments  in  1865 
also  show  this  action  of  the  carbhydrates.  The  quantities 
are  per  day  and  head. 


a.  Fodder  Rich  in  Protein. 


Ox  II.  Experiment  7. 


8. 


Protein 
digested. 
Pounds. 

Carbhy- 
drates 
and  fat 

digested. 

Pounds. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein 
consump- 
tion. 
Pounds. 

3.60 
2.51 

10.95 
12.51 

1  :4.2 
1  :5.0 

2.14 
1.83 

Gain  of 
protein. 
Pounds. 


0.46 
0.68 


152 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


b.  Fodder  Poor  in  Protein. 


Protein 
digested. 
Pounds. 

Carbhy- 
drates 
and  fat 

digested. 

Pounds. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein 
consump- 
tion. 
Pounds. 

Gain  of 

protein. 
Pounds. 

Ox  I. 

Experiment  2. .  . 

0.82 

7.22 

1  :    8.8 

0.83 

-0.01 

(i 

''          1... 

0.78 

9.99 

1  :  12.8 

0.78 

0.00 

OxIL 

5... 

0.89 

11.08 

1  :  12.4 

0.97 

-0.08 

(I 

6... 

0.78 

12.12 

1  :  15.6 

0.74 

+  0.04 

Here,  again,  an  increase  of  the  carbhydrates,  though 
accompanied  bj  a  slight  decrease  of  the  protein,  changed 
a  loss  of  flesh  into  a  gain,  as  well  as  diminished  the  pro- 
tein consumption. 

Further  confirmation  of  this  effect  of  the  carbhydrates  is 
found  in  the  frequently  observed  fact  that  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases  where  the  supply  of  albuminoids  is  suf- 
ficient to  cause  any  production  of  flesh,  the  greatest  relative 
gain  is  produced  by  rations  having  a  wide  nutritive  ratio, 
that  is,  a  large  proportion  of  carbhydrates  to  albumin- 
oids. 

This  fact  is  well  shown  by  the  following  selection  fi*om 
the  experiments  of  Schulze  and  Marcker  {loc.  cit.)  on  sheep, 
which  are  arranged  according  to  the  imtritive  ratio.  They 
were  not  all  made  on  the  same  animal,  nor  at  the  same  time, 
and  are  only  comparable  in  a  general  way  ;  but,  being  toler- 
ably numerous,  they  are  sufficient  to  illustrate  our  present 
point.  The  results  are  per  day  and  head.  The  protein  in 
the  daily  growth  of  wool,  amounting  to  about  five  grammes 
is  not  included  in  the  gain  of  protein. 


MANUAL  OF  OATTLE-FEEDING. 


163 


No.  of  Experiment, 

Protein 
digested. 
Grammes. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Protein 

consumpt'n. 

Grammes. 

Gain  of 

protein. 
Grammes. 

Gain  in  per 
ct.  of  amt. 
digested. 

Experiment  6 

30.6 

1  :  17.4 

24.3 

1.4 

4.6 

Experiment  12 

67.9 

1  :9.4 

54.8 

8.0 

11.8 

3.... 

59.5 

1  :  8.9 

45.9 

9.0 

15.1 

11.... 

68.1 

1  :  8.6 

56.2 

6.8 

10.0 

2.... 

59.7 

1  :8.6 

49.1 

•5.5 

9.2 

10.... 

72.5 

1  :8.1 

54.7 

12.7 

17.5 

8.... 

85.8 

1  :7.7 

63.6 

17.3 

20.1 

Average  .... 

14.0 

Experiment  7 

116.8 

1  :4.9 

96.0 

15.9 

13.7 

9.... 

156.6 

1  :3.7 

142.5 

9.0 

5.8 

"        17.... 

248.3 

1  :2.2 

237.6 

6.1 

2.5 

Average 

7.3 

The  very  wide  nutritive  ratio  of  Experiment  6  caused 
only  a  very  small  gain,  because  the  absolute  amount  of 
protein  was  very  small,  but  that  any  gain  at  all  was  made 
is  doubtless  due  to  the  decrease  of  the  protein  consump- 
tion by  the  large  amount  of  carbhydrates. 

The  other  experiments  show  in  general  that  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  protein  of  the  food  is  applied  to  the  pro- 
duction of  flesh  when  the  food  has  a  medium  nutritive 
ratio  than  when  it  has  a  very  narrow  one.  In  detail,  ex- 
ceptions are  to  be  expected,  since,  as  above  stated,  the 
experiments  were  not  all  made  at  the  same  time  and  the 
bodily  condition  has  much  to  do  with  the  effect  of  a  ration. 

Stohmann's  experiments  on  goats,  already  described 
(p.  146),  also  illustrate  the  advantage  of  a  medium  nutri- 
tive ratio,  as  the  following  table  shows  ; 


154 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


I 
2 
3 
4, 
5 
6. 
7 
8. 


Protein 

digested 

per  day. 

Grms. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Gain   of 

protein 

per  day. 

Grms. 

111.6 

5.87 

1.9 

125.0 

5.42 

9.0 

132.2 

5.08 

11.1 

150.9 

4.78 

23.4 

170.5 

4.22 

18.3 

193.8 

3.27 

27.4 

221.4 

2.84 

30.6 

257.2 

2.55 

27.4 

Gain  in 

per  cent. 

of  digested 

protein. 


1.8 
7.3 
8.3 
15.9 
10.5 
14.3 
14.0 
10.9 


The  relative  gain  of  protein  increased  up  to  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  1 :  4.78,  and  then  decreased. 

These  and  many  other  experiments  which  might  be  ad- 
duced show  that  a  larger  proportion  of  the  digestible  pro- 
tein of  a  ration  is  applied  to  productive  purposes  when 
that  ration  also  contains  abmidance  of  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients. 

We  must  beware,  however,  of  hastily  concluding  that 
a  wide  nutritive  ratio  is  the  most  profitable  for  the  pro- 
duction of  flesh.  The  amount  of  fodder  which  an  animal 
can  consume  is  limited,  and,  if  the  nutritive  ratio  be  made 
very  \\dde,  the  absolute  amount  of  protein  in  the  quantity 
of  food  daily  eaten  will  be  insufficient  to  supply  material 
for  production. 

Moreover,  the  actual  number  of  pounds  of  flesh  gained 
per  day  is  often  greater  on  a  ration  pretty  rich  in  albumi- 
noids, as,  for  example,  in  the  experiments  on  sheep  and  goats 
just  cited,  though,  of  course,  accompanied  by  a  large  protein 
consumption  in  the  body.  The  best  pecuniary  results  may, 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  165 

under  some  circumstances,  be  reached  by  a  ration  having  a 
rather  narrow  nutritive  ratio  and  producing  a  rwpid  gain 
of  flesh,  even  at  the  expense  of  an  increased  protein  con- 
sumption;  while,  under  other  circumstances,  a  wider 
nutritive  ratio  and  a  slower  and  more  economical  produc- 
tion might  be  more  remunerative.  Extremes  in  either 
direction,  however,  are  likely  to  be  unprofitable. 

Carbhydrates  may  cause  a  long-continued  Gain  of 
Flesh. — ^We  saw  in  the  previous  section  that  a  fodder  of 
protein  and  fat  could,  under  proper  conditions,  cause  a 
long-continued  gain  of  flesh,  while  the  gain  caused  by  an 
increase  of  the  protein  of  the  food  was  usually  only  tem- 
porary. The  same  fact  is  true  of  feeding  with  protein 
and  carbhydrates. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  fodder  of  our 
domestic  animals  always  contains  considerable  quantities 
of  carbhydrates,  and  that,  consequently,  the  effects  of  a 
change  from  one  method  of  feeding  to  another  are  not  so 
sharply  manifested  as  in  the  carnivora.  To  this  is  to  be 
added  that  the  digestive  process  lasts  a  considerable  time 
in  the  herbivora,  so  that  remnants  of  the  old  fodder  may 
be  resorbed  along  with  the  flrst  portions  of  the  new,  and 
thus  the  change  of  fodder  be  made  in  reality  a  gradual  one. 

In  general  the  gain  of  flesh  produced  by  a  ration  con- 
taining much  carbhydrates  continues,  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time,  while  that  caused  by  a  ration  poor  in  these 
substances  but  rich  in  protein,  although  it  may  be  greater 
at  first,  does  not  continue  as  long. 

For  example,  in  the  experiments  of  Kiihn  &  Fleischer 
on  cows  (p.  149)  the  addition  of  protein  to  a  ration  con- 
taining much  carbhydrates  caused  a  gain  of  flesh  which 
continued  with  but  little  decrease  throughout  the  experi- 
ment and  would  doubtless  have  lasted  some  time  longer,  a 


156 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


result  evidently  due  to  the  abundance  of  non-nitrogenou8 
nutrients  and  their  influence  in  decreasing  the  protein 
consumption. 

The  experiments  of  Schulze  ik  Miircker  (p.  153),  on  the 
other  hand,  furnish  a  good  example  of  the  opposite  effect. 
In  Experiment  6  the  fodder  consisted  of  hav  and  starch  ; 
in  Experiment  7,  of  hay  and  beans.  The  quantities  of 
digested  nutrients  per  day  and  head  were  : 


Protein. 
Grms. 

Carbliy- 
drates. 
Grms. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Experiment  6     

30.6 
116.8 

536.7 
570.5 

1  :17.4 

"           7      

1  :    4.9 

Both  experiments  were  on  the  same  two  sheep,  and  the 
results  given  are  the  average  of  those  obtained  from  both 
animals.  The  following  table  shows  the  protein  consump- 
tion and  the  gain  of  protein  by  the  body  for  the  last  day 
of  the  hay  and  starch  fodder,  and  also  for  several  days  on 
the  new  ration : 


E*rotein 

consumption. 

Grms. 


April    2 

"  3  (new  fodder). 

"      4 

"      5 

"      6 

"      7 

"    14 , 

"    21. 


22.6 

48.8 
76.8 
87.6 
88.0 
89.8 
92.8 
102  3 


Gain  of 

protein.  * 

Grms. 


3.0 
63.0 
35.0 
24.2 
23.8 
22.0 
19.0 

9.5 


*  Exclusive  of  growth  of  wool. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  157 

Here  the  change  from  a  poor  ration  to  one  rich  in  pro- 
tein caused  at  first  a  very  decided  gain  of  flesh,  but  one 
that  rapidly  decreased,  sinking  to  about  a  third  of  its 
original  amount  in  less  than  a  week  and  nearly  disappear- 
ing in  nineteen  days. 

The  contrast  between  this  result  and  that  obtained  by 
Kiihn  &  Fleischer  is  exceedingly  instructive,  and  shows 
anew  the  importance  of  a  proper  proportion  of  carbhy- 
drates  and  fat  in  the  food  for  the  economical  production 
of  flesh. 

Carbhydrates  equivalent  to  Fat. — It  is  an  impor- 
tant fact  for  the  theory  of  feeding  that  the  decrease  in  the 
protein  consumption  caused  by  a  given  quantity  of  a  carbhy- 
drate  is  at  least  equal  to,  and  generally  a  little  greater  than 
that  caused  by  an  equal  weight  of  fat. 

Formerly,  when  all  the  non-nitrogenous  substances  of 
the  food  were  supposed  to  be  chiefly  valuable  as  fuel  to 
maintain  the  vital  heat  of  the  body,  the  relative  value  of 
fat  and  the  carbhydrates  was  naturally  measured  by  the 
amount  of  heat  which  equal  weights  of  the  two  produced 
when  burned ;  and  it  being  calculated  that  one  pound  of 
fat  produced  •about  2.5  times  as  much  heat  as  one  pound 
of  sugar  or  starch,  it  was  assumed  that  the  fat  of  the  food 
was  2.5  times  as  valuable  as  the  carbhydrates,  and  their 
so-called  respiration  equivalents  were  respectively  2.5  and 
1.  So  far  as  they  serve  for  the  production  of  heat,  these 
numbers  may  represent  their  relative  value,  but,  as  we 
have  seen,  they  have  other  important  functions ;  they 
not  only  favor  the  formation  of  flesh,  but  also,  as  we 
shall  learn,  of  fat.  For  the  former  purpose  they  are 
fully  equal,  weight  for  weight,  to  fat,  and  for  the  latter 
much  more  nearly  so  than  is  shown  by  their  respiration 
equivalents. 


158  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

The  importance  of  this  in  the  feeding  of  domestic  ani- 
mals is  evident.  Fodders  containing  nnich  fat  are  com- 
paratively costly,  and  not  only  that,  but  are  difficult  of 
digestion  by  herbivorous  animals,  and  an  undue  amount  of 
them  is  liable  to  produce  injurious  effects.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  carbhydrates  are  cheap,  are  contained  in  large 
proportions  in  all  the  common  fodders,  and  are  readily 
consumed  and  digested  by  the  herbivora. 

These  substances  in  the  food  of  the  herbivora  effect 
what  the  fat  does  in  that  of  the  carnivora :  they  decrease 
the  protein  consumption,  and  enable  the  animal  to  subsist 
on  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  the  costly  albuminoids  than 
would  otherwise  be  necessary.  It  is  owing  chiefly  to  the 
large  quantities  of  them  consumed  by  our  domestic  animals 
that  they  need  comparatively  little  protein  when  fed  for 
maintenance,  and  that  when  fed  for  production  a  part  of 
the  digested  protein  is  readily  deposited  in  the  body  as 
organized  protein. 


§  7.  Nutritive  Value  of  Amides. 

We  saw  in  Chapter  II.  that  a  part  of  the  nitrogenous 
matter  of  many  feeding-stuffs  is  not  true  protein,  but  con- 
sists of  various  bodies,  most  of  which  appear  to  belong  to 
the  so-called  amide  compounds.  It  becomes,  therefore,  im- 
portant to  consider  the  nutritive  value  of  these  substances, 
and  all  the  more  important  because,  until  very  recently,  they 
have  not  been  considered,  or  even  recognized,  in  the  analysis 
of  feeding-stuifs,  and  since  in  many  feeding  experiments, 
from  whose  results  important  conclusions  have  been  drawn 
as  to  the  amounts  of  the  various  nutrients  required  in  the 
food  of  farm  animals,  feeding-stuffs  have  been  used  which 


MANUAL    OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  159 

have   since   been    shown   to   contain    not    inconsiderable 
amounts  of  these  bodies. 

If,  as  some  writers  have  assumed,  they  have  no  nutri- 
tive value,  we  must  conclude  that  our  domestic  animals 
require  considerably  less  true  protein  in  their  food  than 
fias  been  hitherto  thought,  while  if  they  have  a  value  in 
feeding,  it  is  important  to  know  what  it  is.  We  shall  con- 
fine our  attention  here  to  the  amides,  since  these  are  the 
only  non-albuminoid  nitrogenous  matters  which  have  been 
experimented  on,  and  the  only  ones  which  have  yet  been 
found  abundantly  in  the  common  feeding-stuffs. 

It  may  safely  be  assumed  that  these  comparatively  sim- 
ple bodies  cannot  perform  all  the  functions  of  the  albumin- 
oids, but  it  would  seem  that  certain  authors  have  allowed 
themselves  to  be  carried  too  far  by  purely  speculative  con- 
siderations when  they  have  pronounced  them  valueless  for 
animal  nutrition. 

Amides  are  Decomposed  in  the  Body.— It  has  been 
shown  by  several  investigators  tliat  amides  introduced  into 
the  stomach  are  resorbed,  and  take  part  in  the  chemical 
changes  in  the  body.  Schultzen  &  ^N'encki'^  appear  to 
have  been  the  first  to  experiment  in  this  direction.  They 
fed  a  dog,  weighing  about  16  lbs.,  with  a  fixed  amount  of 
bread,  milk,  and  water  until  equilibrium  was  established 
betw^een  the  supply  and  excretion  of  nitrogen,  and  then 
added  to  the  food  various  amides.  They  experimented  on 
acetamide,  glycocol,  leucin,  and  tyrosin,  and  found  that  all 
except  the  first  produced  a  decided  increase  in  the  excretion 
of  urea.  Acetamide  appeared  to  pass  through  the  system 
unaltered. 

With  glycocol  the  following  results  were  obtained : 

♦Zeitschrift  fur  Biologie,  VIII.,  124. 


160 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Date. 

Pood. 

Urea  per  day. 
Grms. 

Septembei 

•24 

Bread,  milk,  and  water. 
Same  -f  15  grms.  glycocol. 

it                       U                            i( 

Bread,  milk,  and  water. 
(<          ((            ti 

3  960 

25 

3  768 

26 

7.187 

27 

9.470 

28 

3  810 

29 

3.780 

The  feeding  of  glycocol  on  the  25th  and  26th  caused 
a  marked  increase  in  the  excretion  of  urea  on  the  26th 
and  27th,  showing  beyond  a  doubt  that  glycocol  is  con- 
verted into  urea.     'No  glycocol  was  found  in  the  urine. 

The  average  excretion  of  urea  on  the  days  preceding  the 
glycocol  feeding  was  3.8285  grammes  per  day. 

Total  urea  on  26th  and  27th 16. 657  grms. 

Urea  of  two  average  days 7.657     " 


Excess  caused  by  30  grms.  glycocol. 
Urea  equivalent  to  "     "  " 


Difference . 


9.000 
11.970 

2.970 


=24.8  per  cent. 


It  will  be  seen  that  nearly  25  per  cent,  of  the  glycocol 
fed  is  unaccounted  for.  The  authors  state  that  the  glyco- 
col was  not  absolutely  dry  and  pure,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
imagine  that  so  large  an  error  could  be  thus  caused. 

It  seems  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  glycocol  a  gain  of  flesh  took  place,  and  this 
supposition  is  perhaps  supported  by  the  fact  that  the  in- 
crease in  the  excretion  of  urea  does  not  appear  till  the  sec- 
ond day.  It  would  seem  as  if  a  gain  of  flesh  took  place  at 
first,  and  that  subsequently  the  protein  consumption  in- 
creased, to  fall  again  when  the  glycocol  was  withdrawn. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


161 


Such  experiments  as  this,  however,  are  not  adapted,  as 
they  were  not  intended,  to  show  the  nutritive  effect  of  the 
substance  experimented  on. 

We  have  seen  that  in  the  dog  the  addition  of  protein  to 
the  previous  food  causes  but  a  temporary  gain  of  flesh, 
while  the  ''  protein  consumption  "  is  permanently  increased, 
and  we  should  expect  that,  if  amides  aided  in  any  way  the 
production  of  flesh,  the  effect  of  a  sudden  addition  of  them 
to  the  food  would  be  much  the  same.  In  an  experiment 
continued  for  so  short  a  time  as  this  was,  the  nutritive  effect 
must  of  necessity  be  transitory  and  hard  to  isolate.  At  the 
same  time,  the  above  results  do  not  negative  the  belief  that 
amides  are  of  value  as  food. 

The  experiment  with  leucin  gave  essentially  the  same 
results  as  the  one  on  glycocol.  The  leucin  was  prepared 
from  horn,  and  was  not  perfectly  pure  or  dry. 


Date. 

Food. 

Urea  per  day. 
Grms. 

October  4 

Bread,  milk,  and  water. 
Same,  +  10  grms.  leucin. 
+  30     "           " 

Bread,  milk,  and  water. 

((         ((         it         ti 

U               U               ((               (( 

4.979 

*'      5 

5  045 

"■      6 

6  660 

*'      7 

9  098 

"      8 

4  380 

*'      9 

3  936 

The  average  excretion  of  urea  for  the  days  preceding 

the  feeding  with  leucin  was  4.585  grammes  per  day. 

Total  urea  on  0th  and  7th 15.758  grammes. 

Urea  of  two  average  days 9,170        '' 

Excess  caused   by  40  grammes  leucin 6.588        ** 

Urea  equivalent  to    "  "  "    9.000        " 

Difference  (=26.8  per  cent.) 3.412        " 


162  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

An  experiment  on  tyrosin  showed  that  a  part  of  this  sub- 
stance was  converted  into  urea,  but  that  a  considerable  por- 
tion escaped  digestion. 

Similar  experiments  by  v.  Kniei'iem  ^  on  asparaginic 
acid  and  asparagin,  gave  similar  results.  They  showed 
that  these  bodies  are  converted  into  urea  in  the  animal 
body,  and  gave  also  a  deficit  of  nitrogen,  though  a  smaller 
one,  amountiug  to  9  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  amide  nitrogen 
fed.  Further  experiments  by  the  same  author  f  on  hens, 
with  asparagin,  asparaginic  acid,  glycocol,  and  leucin,  gave 
also  the  same  result,  though  with  a  still  smaller  deficit  of 
nitrogen.  In  no  case,  however,  was  the  excretion  in  ex- 
cess of  the  supply  in  the  food. 

Indications  of  Nutritive  Value. — All  these  results, 
while  highly  interesting,  leave  the  question  of  the  nutri- 
tive value  of  amides  still  in  doubt.  There  are  many  facts, 
however,  which  indicate  that  they  may  have  a  certain  value 
as  food.  The  very  fact  that  they  are  decomposed  in  the 
body  is  one.  Another  is,  that  they  are  formed  from  the 
albuminoids  of  the  food,  to  a  considerable  extent,  by  the 
action  of  the  trypsin  of  the  pancreatic  juice  in  digestion. 
It  seems  hardly  probable  that  the  amides  thus  formed  are 
to  be  regarded  as  waste  products.  Moreover,  we  have  seen 
that  in  the  plant  these  bodies  may  serve  as  som-ces  of  pro- 
tein, and  while  such  synthetic  processes  are  particularly 
characteristic  of  vegetable  life,  they  are  by  no  means  ex- 
cluded in  the  animal  organism. 

That,  under  certain  circumstances,  an  amide  may  have  a 
high  nutritive  value,  has  been  strikingly  shown  by  Her- 
mann. It  had  been  shown  by  Yoit  and  others  that  gela- 
tin and  similar  bodies,  belonging  to  the  gelatigenous  group 

♦Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologie,  X.,  279. 
flbid.,  XIII.,  36. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  163 

of  compounds  (p.  IS),  are  capable  of  performing  the  func- 
tions of  circulatory  protein,  but  cannot  serve  as  a  source  of 
organized  protein. 

It  was  known  also  that  when  these  bodies  were  decom- 
posed by  acids  they  yielded  essentially  the  same  products 
as  the  albuminoids,  except  that  the  amide  tyrosin  was  al- 
ways lacking.  Escher,"^  luider  Hermann's  direction,  tried 
the  experiment  of  feeding  a  dog  with  gelatin  and  tyrosin, 
and  found  that  the  two  together  could  sustain  life  and 
cause  a  production  of  flesh. 

The  very  probable  conjectm-e  has  been  advanced,  that 
amides  in  the  food  may  play  the  same  part  that  gelatin 
has  been  shown  to  do  by  Yoit,  viz.,  take  the  place  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  circulatory  protein,  thus  leaving  the  latter  avail- 
able for  the  formation  of  flesh  or  for  other  productive  pur- 
poses, and  this  view  seems  to  be  sustained  by  the  experi- 
ments about  to  be  described. 

Asparagin  a  Nutrient. — The  only  experiments  as 
yet  executed  with  the  direct  pui-pose  of  determining  the 
food-value  of  amides  are  those  of  Weiske,  Schrodt,  and  v. 
Dangel,f  at  the  Proskau  Experiment  Station,  on  aspara- 
gin. A  series  of  experiments  on  rabbits  and  another  on 
hens  having  shown  only  that  albuminoids  could  not  be 
entirely  replaced  by  asparagin,  but  giving  in  other  respects 
indecisive  results,  a  third  series  was  made  on  two  merino- 
southdown  sheep.  The  plan  of  the  investigation  was  as 
follows  :  The  animals  were  fed  at  first  with  a  fodder  poor 
in  protein  (consisting  of  hay,  starch,  and  sugar)  until  the 
excretion  of  nitrogen  in  the  urine  became  constant,  and  the 
gain  of  flesh  on  this  ration  was  determined.  Then,  in  three 
following  periods,  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  daily  ration 

*  Vierteljahrsschrift  der  naturf.  Ges.  in  Zurich,  XXI,,  36. 
t  Zeitschrift  f iir  Biologie,  XV.,  261. 


164 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


was  doubled  by  tlie  addition  respectively  of  protein  (Id  tlie 
form  of  peas),  gelatin,  and  asparagin,  while  tlie  amount  of 
non-nitrogenous  nutrients  remained  practically  the  same. 
These  additions  to  the  original  fodder  were  made  in  the 
opposite  order  in  the  two  cases,  in  order  that  the  nutritive 
effect  of  the  asparagin  in  each  sheep  might  be  compared 
with  that  of  protein  in  the  other,  and  the  influence  of  in- 
dividual peculiarities  be  thus  eliminated. 

The  preliminary  feeding  was  continued  in  each  period 
until  the  excretion  of  nitrogen  became  constant,  and  the 
excrements  then  collected  for  five  days  and  analyzed.  In 
the  statement  of  the  results  which  follows,  the  average  per 
day  and  head  of  these  five  days  is  given. 

Period  L 
Ration :   Sheep  I.  and  II. ,  500  grms.  hay,  200  grms.  starch,  50  grms. 


sugar. 

Protein 

digested. 

Grms. 

Carbhydrates 

digested. 

Grms. 

Fat 

digested. 

Grms. 

Nitrogen  in 
urine. 
Grms. 

Gain  of 
protein. 
Grms. 

Sheep  I.. 
"     II. 

32.21 

22.86 

412.37 
412.71 

9.89 
9.67 

3.275 
3.388 

1.744 
0.094 

Period  II, 
Ration :  Sheep  I.,  500  grms.  hay,  200  grms.  starch,  50  grms.  sugar,  43 
grms.  asparagin;  Sheep  II.,   500  grms.  hay,  80  grms.  starch,   20 
grms.  sugar,  250  grms.  peas. 


Sheep  I . . 
"     II. 


Protein  ♦ 

digested. 

Grms. 


70.86 
83.54 


Carbhydrates 

digested. 

Grms. 


411.25 
427.49 


Pat 

digested. 

Grms. 


9.87 
14.08 


Nitrogen  in 
urine. 
Grms. 


9.958 
11.099 


Gain  of 
protein. 
Grms. 


8.625 
15,169 


See  Note  on  opposite  page. 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


165 


Period  III. 

Ration  :    Sheep  I.  and  II.,  500  grms    hay,  200  grms.  starch,  50  grms. 
sugar,  53  grms.  gelatin. 


Protein  * 

digested. 

Grms. 

Carbhydrates 

digested. 

Grms. 

Fat 

digested. 

Grms. 

Nitrogen  in 
urine. 
Grms. 

Gain  of 

protein. 

Grms. 

Sheep  I.. 
"     II. 

66.68 
66.38 

399.71 
401.52 

9.23 

8.86 

8.69 
9.95 

12.375 
4.250 

Period  IV. 

Ration:  Sheep  I.,  500  grms.  hay,  115  grms.  starch,  15  grms.  sugar,  200 
grms.  peas  ;  Sheep  II. ,  500  grms.  hay,  200  grms.  starch,  50  gi'ms. 
sugar,  53  grms.  asparagin. 


Protein  * 

digested. 

Grms. 

Carbhydrates 

digested. 

Grms. 

Fat 

digested. 

Grms. 

Nitrogen  in 
urine. 
Grms. 

Gain  of 
protein. 
Grms. 

Sheep  I.. 
"     II. 

71.24 
84.03 

441.17 
424.03 

13.34 
9.77 

9.730 
11.497 

10.425 
12.175 

Determinations  of  sulphur  were  made  in  all  the  experi- 
ments, and  showed  that  in  every  case  but  one  (Sheep  II. 
in  Period  III.)  a  gain  of  this  element  also  took  place. 

These  results  show,  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt,  that  as- 
paragin, at  least,  is  really  a  nutrient,  and  that  when  added 
to  a  fodder  poor  in  albuminoids  it  may  cause  a  gain  of 
protein  by  the  body,  just  as  we  have  already  seen  that  the 
albuminoids  may. 

It  probably  acts  in  the  way  already  suggested,  viz.,  by 
taking  the  place  of  a  part  of  the  circulatory  protein  and 

*  To  render  the  results  better  comparable,  the  nitrogen  of  the  as- 
paragin  and  gelatin  has  in  all  cases  been  multiplied  by  6.25  and 
counted  as  protein. 


166  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

protecting  it  from  destruction.  That  this  is  so  is  perhaps 
indicated  bj  the  fact  that  a  gain  of  sulphur  also  took  place. 
All  the  albuminoids  contain  this  element,  while  asparagin 
:b  free  from  it,  and  hence  we  may  conclude  that  the  pro- 
tein deposited  in  the  body  was  derived  from  the  albu- 
minoids of  the  food,  and  was  not  formed  by  a  synthetical 
process  from  the  asparagin. 

An  important  point  is  that  the  gain  produced  by  as- 
paragin was  nearly  as  gi-eat  as  that  produced  by  an  equiva- 
lent amoimt  of  albuminoids.  From  this  it  would  appear 
tliat  while  asparagin  cannot  alone  supply  material  for  the 
formation  of  protein  in  the  body,  it  is  fully  capable  of 
performing  the  functions  of  the  so-called  circulatoiy  pro- 
tein, 60  far  as  the  production  of  flesh  is  concerned,  and  for 
this  pui-pose  is  practically  just  as  valuable  as  protein  for 
increasing  the  richness  of  a  ration  already  containing  a 
reasonable  amount  of  that  substance.  This  suggests  the 
question  whether  much  of  the  so-called  circulatory  protein 
of  the  body  may  not  be  simply  that  portion  of  the  protein 
of  the  food  which  is  converted  into  amides  by  the  action 
of  trypsin  and  other  ferments  during  digestion.  The  sup- 
position seems  quite  plausible,  and  is  certainly  interesting 
from  a  physiological  standpoint,  though  of  little  practical 
importance  for  the  purposes  of  cattle-feeding. 

Other  Amides. — Whether  what  Weiske  has  shown  re- 
garding asparagin  is  true  of  other  amides  as  well,  can,  of 
course,  be  finally  decided  only  by  direct  experiment ;  but 
in  the  meantime,  while  we  must  beware  of  drawing  too 
general  conclusions  from  a  single  experiment,  it  seem? 
highly  probable  that  at  least  those  other  amides  which 
have  been  shown  to  be  convertible  into  urea  in  the  bodj' 
may  contribute  to  nourish  it. 

But,  if  this  be  true,  it  also  follows  that  these  bodies  as 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE- FEEDING.  167 

tliey  occur  in  fodders,  i.  e.^  associated  with  comparatively 
large  quantities  of  protein,  are  practically  just  as  valuable 
for  the  production  of  flesh  as  the  latter,  since,  when  feed- 
ing-stuffs containing  them  are  used,  we  have  essentially 
the  conditions  of  Weiske's  experiments,  viz.,  amides  added 
to  a  fodder  containing  considerable  true  protein,  and 
should  expect  the  same  results.  The  importance  of  this 
fact  is  easily  seen.  If,  for  practical  purposes,  amides  are 
equivalent  to  protein,  it  is  unnecessary  to  consider  them 
separately  in  the  formation  of  feeding  standards,  while 
substitution  of  a  part  of  the  protein  called  for  by  a  feed- 
ing standard  by  amides  will  cause  no  decrease  in  the  nu- 
tritive value  of  a  ration,  so  far  as  the  prodtcction  of  flesh 
is  concerned.  None  of  the  experiments  yet  made  touch 
the  question  of  the  effect  of  amides  on  fat  production.  It 
may  well  be  the  case  that  they  cannot  play  the  important 
part  in  this  process  which  the  albuminoids  appear  to,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite  possible  that  they,  like  the 
carbhydrates,  may  protect  the  fat  of  the  body  from 
oxidation. 

Speculation  in  advance  of  experiment  is  fruitless ;  but, 
meanwhile,  though  the  study  of  the  nutritive  value  of 
these  bodies  has  but  just  begun,  all  the  results  yet  reached 
warn  us  against  hastily  declaring  them  worthless  or  the 
results  of  chemical  analysis  of  feeding-stuffs  false  and  mis- 
leading. 

§  8.  Effect  of  Quantity  of  Food. 

A  Large  Amount  of  Fodder  Causes  a  Relatively. 
Larger  Gain. — It  is  self-evident  that  a  large  quantity  of 
fodder  of  the  same  composition  nmst  cause  a  greater  depo- 
sition of  flesh  in  the  body  than  a  small  one ;  but  the  gain 
is  aot  only  absolutely,  but  relatively  greater,  as  is  shown 


168  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

by  numerous  experiiuents  made  on  oxen,  at  Weende,  by 
Henueberg  &  Stolimann.  In  one  case,  e.  ^.,  the  total 
quantity  of  the  digestible  nutrients  in  the  daily  fodder  was 
increased  from  17.86  to  19.46  pounds,  while  the  ratio  be- 
tween the  digestible  albuminoids  and  the  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients  (the  nutritive  ratio)  remained  the  same. 

The  result  was  that,  after  the  increase,  32  per  cent,  of 
the  total  quantity  of  digested  albuminoids  w^as  deposited 
as  flesh,  wdiile  befoi'e  only  18  per  cent,  had  been.  The 
absolute  quantities  w^ere  1.19  and  0.62  pounds.  In  other 
trials,  on  a  ration  consisting  exclusively  of  clover-hay,  an 
increase  of  four  or  five  pounds  per  day  and  head  in  the 
hay  ration  caused  the  amount  of  protein  deposited  as  flesh 
to  increase  from  9  per  cent,  to  14  per  cent.,  and  in  another 
experiment  from  11  per  cent,  to  15  per  cent,  of  the  total 
digested  protein  of  the  fodder.  That  is,  out  of  every  hun- 
dred pomids  of  digested  protem  the  animals  converted 
into  flesh,  on  the  smaller  ration,  9  and  11  pounds,  on  the 
larger,  14  and  15  pounds.  These  facts  show  how  exceed- 
ingly important  it  is,  especially  in  fattening,  to  stimulate 
the  animals  to  the  largest  possible  consumption  of  fodder 
consistent  with  health ;  a  little  more  or  less  may  produce 
an  essentially  different  effect,  showing  itself  perceptibly 
in  a  more  or  less  rapid  increase  of  the  live  weight. 


CHAPTEE  yn. 

THE  FOKMATION  OF  FAT. 
§  1.  Sources  of  Fat. 

The  Fat  of  the  Food,  when  digested  and  resorbed, 
may  remain  undestrojed  under  suitable  conditions,  and  be 
stored  up  in  the  body ;  this  is  now  as  certain  as  that  a  for- 
mation of  fat  from  other  constituents  of  the  food  may  also 
take  place.  We  will,  on  this  point,  only  refer  to  the  re- 
sults of  some  of  the  later  experiments,  which,  like  many  on 
the  laws  of  flesh  formation,  we  owe  to  the  activity  of  the 
Physiological  Institute  at  Munich. 

Carnivorous  animals  which,  by  a  previous  feeding  with 
meat  exclusively,  have  become  rich  in  flesh  and  compara- 
tively poor  in  fat,  can  be  easily  made  quite  fat-free  by 
long  fasting ;  the  time  when  the  minimum  of  fat  remains 
is  easily  recognized  from  the  fact  that  the  excretion  of 
urea,  which  during  hunger  is  very  constant,  at  last  m- 
creases  quite  suddenly,  because  with  the  entire  disappear- 
ance of  the  fat  more  protein  is  consumed  in  the  body. 
Such  an  animal,  a  dog  weighing  about  20  kilogrammes, 
after  thirty  days  of  fasting,  was  fed  for  ^ve  days  with  the 
greatest  possible  quantities  of  pure  fat,  of  which,  on  an 
average,  370.8  grammes  daily  were  digested.  This  is  such 
a  large  quantity  that  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  it  to  have 
been  completely  oxidized  in  the  body,  for  then  1,040 
grammes  of  carbonic  acid  should  have  been  excreted 
8 


170  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

daily,  while  direct  determinations  of  the  respiratory  pro- 
ducts of  dogs  twice  as  large  and  in  the  best  condition 
give  much  smaller  numbers. 

In  the  body  of  the  animal,  which  was  killed  at  the  end 
of  the  experiment,  1,352.7  grannnes  of  fat  were  found  on 
the  various  organs,  instead  of  the  150  grammes  which,  ac- 
cording to  other  investigations,  was  the  greatest  amount 
that  could  have  been  present  in  the  body  after  thirty  days' 
fasting,  so  that  in  this  case  about  250  grammes  daily  of 
the  fat  of  the  food  remained  undestroyed  and  were  de- 
posited in  the  body.  In  numerous  other  experiments  on 
dogs,  too,  with  a  more  normal  food  of  meat  and  fat,  and 
with  help  of  the  respiration  apparatus,  the  fact  has  been 
confirmed  that  often  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  fat  of 
the  food  may  be  retained  in  the  body. 

The  fat,  however,  must  be  analogous  to  the  animal  fats 
or  easily  altered  into  them,  smce  entirely  foreign  fats  are 
either  not  resorbed  from  the  alimentary  canal  at  aU  or  are 
rapidly  oxidized.  This  does  not,  of  course,  prevent  the 
fat  in  the  fodder  of  the  herbivora  from  contributing  di- 
rectly to  the  deposition  of  fat  in  the  body,  since  most  of 
the  vegetable  fats  are  very  similar  in  their  composition 
and  properties  to  tlie  animal  fats. 

Formation  of  Fat  in  the  Body. — For  the  fact  of 
the  formation  of  fat  in  the  body  from  other  substances 
no  special  proofs  need  be  adduced ;  it  is  sufficiently  evi- 
dent from  daily  experience,  especially  in  fattening  and  in 
milk-production. 

But  it  is  of  importance  to  consider  the  question  what 
nutrients  yield  chiefly  or  exclusively  the  necessary  mate- 
rial for  the  formation  of  fat. 

Naturally  only  the  albuminoids  and  carbhydrates  are  to 
be  considered  in  this  connection,  for  besides  these  nutri- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  171 

ents  and  the  fat  itself,  tliere  are  no  other  organic  substan- 
ces present  in  such  quantity  in  the  fodder,  either  of  the 
herbivora  or  carnivora,  as  to  be  able  to  contribute,  in  any 
essential  degree,  to  fat-formation. 

Formation  of  Fat  from  Albuminoids. — That  fat  can 
be  formed  from  the  albmninoids  is  now  denied  by  no  one 
acquainted  with  the  subject. 

The  fact  that  the  albuminoids  in  decay,  and  on  treat- 
ment with  alkalies  and  with  oxidizing  agents,  form  vari- 
ous fatty  substances  along  with  other  products  of  decom- 
position, favors  this  view.  It  has  also  been  observed,  that 
in  the  milk  of  the  same  cow  the  quantity  of  albuminoids 
frequently  decreases  when  that  of  the  fat  increases,  and 
the  reverse.  The  occasionally  observed  formation  of  so- 
called  adipocere  also  favors  this  view ;  almost  all  the  nitro- 
genous substances  of  the  body  disappear,  and  in  place  of 
the  muscles,  etc.,  appears  a  waxy-looking,  fatty  mass,  solu- 
ble in  ether.  Somewhat  similar  is  the  fatty  degeneration 
of  the  muscles  and  other  organs  of  the  living  body  in  cer- 
tain diseases  and  not  seldom  in  excessive  fattening,  of 
swine,  e.  g.  This  fatty  degeneration  of  almost  all  the  or- 
gans of  the  body  is  especially  marked  in  phosphorus  pois- 
oning, and,  according  to  observations  made  in  Munich,  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  fat  in  this  case  arises  exclusively 
from  the  albuminoids,  urea  being  separated  from  the  latter 
and  excreted.  Two  apparently  independent  alterations  of 
the  tissue  metamorphosis  appear  to  occur  at  the  same  time  ; 
first,  an  increased  protein  consumption,  resulting  in  the  pro- 
duction of  urea  and  fat,  and  second,  a  diminished  absorption 
of  oxygen  by  the  blood  and  consequently  a  decreased  oxi- 
dation of  the  fat,  both  processes  working  together  to  cause 
a  large  deposition  of  fat  in  the  body.  For  example,  the 
liver  of  a  man  who  died  of  phosphorus  poisoning  con- 


172 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


tained  m  its  dry  substance  the  enormous  amount  of  76.8 
per  cent,  of  fat. 

If  a  doubt  still  remained  as  to  the  formation  of  fat  from 
albuminoids,  it  must  disappear  on  a  consideration  of  the 
results  which  have  been  obtained  on  healthy  animals  with 
an  entirely  normal  food.  For  example,  the  eggs  of  ordi- 
nary flies  have  been  allowed  to  develop  on  pure  blood  and 
from  seven  to  eleven  times  as  much  fat  found  in  the  larvae 
as  was  originally  contained  in  eggs  and  blood  together, 
although  the  animals  had  not  consumed  nearly  all  the 
blood ;  the  excess  of  fat  could  only  have  come  from  the 
albuminoids  of  the  food. 

Yet  more  important,  however,  are  the  numerous  experi- 
ments made  by  feeding  dogs  on  large  quantities  of  pure 
(fat-fi'ee)  meat. 

The  three  following  experiments  by  Yoit  &  Pettenko- 
f er  *  may  serve  as  an  example.  In  these  experiments  the 
respiration  apparatus  was  used,  and  hence  the  excretion  of 
carbon,  as  well  as  of  nitrogen,  could  be  determined -• 


Fifth  day  of  feeding 
with  1,800 
grms.  meat. 

Second  day  of  feed- 
ing with  2,500 
grms.  meat. 

First  day  of  feeding 

with  2,ooe 

grms.  meat. 

Nitrogen. 
Grms. 

Carbon. 
Grms. 

Nitrogen. 
Grms. 

Carbon, 
Grms. 

Nitrogen. 
Grms. 

Carbon. 
Grms, 

Fed, 

61.20 

59.10 
0.60 

59.70 

225.4 

35.6 

4.3 

179.0 

218.9 

85.00 

84.38 
1.00 

85.38 

313.0 

50.6 

6.7 

213.6 

270.9 

68,0 

66.5 
0.8 

67.3 

250,4 

Excreted  in 

Urine 

Dung 

Respiration.. 

Total  excretion 

40.0 

5.4 

158.3 

203.7 

Gain  (  +  )  or  Loss  (—). 

+  1.50 

+  6.5 

-0.38 

+  42.1 

+  0,7 

+  46.7 

*  Zeitschrift  f .  Biologic,  VII. ,  433. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  173 

In  the  second  and  third  experiments  especially,  while 
there  is  no  essential  gain  or  loss  of  nitrogen,  there  is  a 
gain  of  carbon  by  the  body  larger  than  any  possible  ex- 
perimental error,  and  which  must  be  interpreted,  accord- 
ing to  the  principles  of  Chapter  Y.,  as  showing  a  produc- 
tion of  fat  in  the  body,  and  that  this  fat  must  have  been 
produced  from  albuminoids  is  self-evident.  In  the  first 
experiment  the  feeding  had  continued  four  days,  and  there 
the  gain  of  carbon  is  small,  indicating  that  a  gain  of  fat 
produced  by  albuminoids  alone  does  not  continue  long,  a 
fact  which  other  results  confirm.  Many  other  similar  ex- 
periments showing  a  formation  of  fat  from  albuminoids 
might  be  adduced. 

Fat  fkom  CARBnYDKATES. — Whether  fat  can  be  formed 
from  carbhydrates  is  still  a  disputed  question.  Accord- 
ing to  Yoit  &  Pettenkofer  the  protein  of  the  body  in  de- 
composing takes  up  the  elements  of  water  and  splits  up 
into  urea  and  a  fat-like  substance ;  and,  as  stated  on  page 
88,  it  has  been  calculated  that  100  parts  of  protein  and 
12.3  parts  of  water,  contain  the  elements  of  33.5  parts  of 
urea,  27.4  parts  of  carbonic  acid,  and  51.4  parts  of  fat. 

They  have  shown,  in  experiments  shortly  to  be  de- 
scribed, that  the  carbhydrates  of  the  food  are  more  easily 
oxidized  in  the  system  than  the  fat  of  the  food  or  the  fat 
formed  from  the  albuminoids,  and  that  they  protect  the  lat- 
ter two  from  oxidation  and  thus  indirectly  aid  the  forma- 
tion of  fat.  Having  also  shown,  by  experiments  like  those 
just  adduced,  the  possibility  of  the  production  of  fat  from 
protein,  they  naturally  regard  the  latter,  together  with  the 
fat  of  the  food,  as  the  chief  sources  of  fat  under  all  cir- 
cumstances, and  consider  the  action  of  the  carbhydrates  to 
be  simply  protective. 

According  to  this  view  the  carbhydrates  would,  at  most, 


174  MANUAL   OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 

serve  for  the  production  of  fat  only  wlien  tlie  protein  and 
fat  of  the  food  were  exliausted,  or,  in  other  words,  when 
the  supply  of  oxygen  in  the  body  was  not  sufficient  to  con- 
sume all  the  carbhydrates.  If  we  find  that,  in  all  experi- 
ments on  fattening,  the  digestible  protein  and  fat  of  the 
food  are  sufficient  to  account  for  the  amount  of  flesh  and 
fat  actually  produced,  we  shall  have  very  strong  presump- 
tive evidence  that  the  views  of  Yoit  &  Pettenkofer  and 
their  followers  are  correct,  though,  of  course,  such  evi- 
dence is  of  a  negative  character  and  can  never  reach  abso- 
lute proof.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  find  that,  in  ac- 
curately conducted  experiments,  the  digestible  protein  and 
fat  of  the  food  do  not  suffice  to  account  for  the  flesh  and 
fat  produced  within  the  limits  of  experimental  error,  we 
have  a  proof  that  the  carbhydrates  of  the  food  must  have 
contributed  to  its  formation  to  the  extent,  at  least,  of  the 
observed  difference. 

Experiments  on  Ruminants. — Unfortunately  there 
have  been  as  yet  no  extensive  investigations  in  which  the 
fat-production  of  domestic  animals,  or  of  any  herbivorous 
animals,  under  the  influence  of  a  definite  and  suitable  ra- 
tion, has  been  determined  with  scientific  accuracy,  i.  e.,  by 
careful  determination  of  all  the  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous 
excretions. 

In  considering  this  question,  we  can  avail  ourselves 
only  of  the  results  of  so-called  "  practical "  experiments, 
in  which  the  nutritive  effect  of  the  fodder  has  been  de- 
termined simply  by  the  increase  of  the  live  weight  of  the 
animal,  or  perhaps  from  the  dressed  weight,  or  at  best 
from  experiments  in  wliich  the  "  sensible  "  (solid  and  liq- 
uid) but  not  the  gaseous  excretions  have  been  accurately 
determined. 

Milk-fat. — In  regard  to  the  production  of  milk -fat  by 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


175 


cows  we  have  three  investigations,  carried  out  respec- 
tively hy  Yoit  *  in  Munich,  E.  v.  Wolff  t  in  Hohenheim, 
and  G-  Kiihn  and  M.  Fleischer  :f  in  Mockern. 

In  the  first  a  rich  fodder  was  given,  in  the  two  others, 
on  the  contrary,  one  less  rich  in  albuminoids. 

In  the  following  table  the  sum  of  the  fat  of  the  fodder 
and  the  fat  which  might  have  been  formed  from  the  pro- 
tein of  the  latter  (51.4  per  cent,  of  the  protein  consump- 
tion) is  compared  with  the  amount  actually  found  in  the 
milk.     The  numbers  are  grammes  per  day  and  head  : 


Munich,  Experiment  a 
b 

HoLenheim,   "  I 

II 
I 
II 


Mockern, 


Fat  of 
fodder. 
Grms, 

Fat  from 
protein. 
Grms. 

Total. 
Grms. 

818.8 

401.8 

720.6 

276.0 

308.5 

584.5 

170.5 

160.1 

330.6 

166.5 

171.3 

337.8 

183.5 

79.5 

263.0 

183.5 

69.5 

258.0 

Fat  of 

the  milk. 

Grms. 


577.5 
837.3 
308.3 
290.5 
277.5 
292.0 


In  the  Munich  and  Hohenheim  experiments,  the  fat 
available  from  the  two  sources  named  was  more  than 
sufficient  to  account  for  that  produced  in  the  milk.  ]n 
Mockern,  on  the  contrary,  a  small  excess  of  milk-fat  was 
found;  but  even  if  this  excess  had  been  considerably 
greater,  no  definite  conclusions  in  regard  to  its  source 
could  be  drawn.  Equilibrium  between  the  supply  and 
excretion  of  nitroojen  was,  indeed,  established  in  the  Mock- 


♦  Zeit.  f.  Biologic,  1869,  p.  113. 

f  Ernahrung  Landw.  Nutzthiere,  349. 

tLandw.  V.  St.,  XI  1,451. 


176 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


em  experiments,  as  in  all  the  others,  but  whether  the  ani- 
mals were  also  in  equilibrium  as  to  carbon  or  whether  the 
fat  of  the  body  took  part  in  the  milk-production,  as 
is  so  often  the  case  with  milk  cows,  even  when  well  fed, 
could  only  have  been  decided  with  certainty  by  the  help 
of  a  respiration  apparatus. 

Exjyeriineiits  on  Fattening. — Something  more  definite 
as  to  the  source  of  animal  fat  may  perhaps  be  learned 
from  the  results  of  fattening  experiments  on  domestic 
animals,  if  we  at  the  same  time  consider  that,  according  to 
the  experiments  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert  in  England  (see 
p.  9),  the  increase  of  the  live  weight  in  fattening  has  the 
following  composition  in  100  parts : 


Ash. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Total 
dry  matter. 

Water. 

Swine 

O.OG 
2.34 
1.47 

6.44 

7.13 
7.69 

71.5 
70.4 
66.2 

78.0 
79.9 
75.4 

22.0 

Sheep 

20.1 

Oxen 

24.6 

Average 

1.45           7.53 

66.6 

75.6 

24.4 

Of  late  years  a  large  number  of  fattening  experiments 
have  been  executed  at  the  various  Experiment  Stations, 
especially  w^ith  sheep.  In  these  experiments  the  fodder 
has  been  analyzed  according  to  the  same  methods,  the  ac- 
tual increase  of  weight  determined  as  accurately  as  possi- 
ble, and  the  duration  of  the  experiments  made  sufficiently 
long  (from  two  and  one-half  to  fully  three  months)  to  nul- 
lify, to  a  large  extent,  the  effects  of  any  temporary  varia- 
tions of  the  live-weight  which  might  occur. 

If,  now,  in  these  experiments,  we  assume  that,  according 
to  Lawes  &  Gilbert's  results,  70.4  per  cent,  of  the  gain 


MANUAL   OP   CATTLE-FEEDING.  177 

made  consists  of  fat,  we  shall  have  a  basis  for  computing 
whether  the  available  protein  and  fat  of  the  food  consumed 
were  sufficient  to  account  for  the  amount  of  fat  actually 
produced.  Obviously,  such  computations  are  simply  ap- 
proximate, but  at  the  same  time  their  results  have  a  cer- 
tain value  when  derived  from  a  large  number  of  experi- 
ments. 

This  comparison  has  been  made  by  the  wi-iter  in  seventy-' 
seven  different  experiments,  viz.,  fourteen  by  Henneberg, 
in  Weende,  in  1858-63  ;  *  six  by  Stohman,  in  1862-63,  f 
and  eight  in  1861-65, :[:  at  Brunswick ;  nine  by  E.  v. 
Wolff,  in  1870-71,  §  and  ten  in  1871-72,  ||  at  Ilohenheim ; 
nine  by  Henneberg  &  Stohmann  ;  T  eight  by  Haubner  & 
Hofmeister,  in  Dresden ;  and  twelve  by  F.  Krocker,  in 
Proskau.  ^'^ 

Each  one  hundred  parts  of  protein  oxidized  in  the  body 
was  considered  to  have  yielded  51.4  parts  of  fat,  and  to 
this  amount  was  added  the  ready-formed  fat  of  the  fodder. 

The  result,  with  one  or  possibly  two  exceptions,  was 
that  in  all  cases  the  protein  and  fat  were  sufficient  to  ac- 
count for  the  amount  of  fat  formed,  although  in  some  of 
the  experiments  little  margin  was  left. 

E.  V.  Wolff  has  separated  fifty-nine  of  these  experiments 
into  four  groups,  according  to  the  amount  of  digestible 
protein  contained  in  the  fodder,  with  the  following  results 
in  pounds  per  day  and  head : 


*  Jour.  f.  Landw.,  1858,  p.  362  ;  1860,  p.  1 ;  1866,  p.  303, 
t  Ibid.,  1865,  2  Supplement, 
tibid.,  1867,  p.  133. 
§  Landw.  Jahrb.,  L,  533. 
i  Ibid.,  II.,  221. 

1^  Jour.  f.  Landw.,  1865,  Supplement. 
**  Preuss.  Ann.  d.  Landw.,  1869,  Sept.  and  Dec. 
8* 


178 


:manual  of  cattle-feeding. 


Digested  per  Day  and 
Head,    Average. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Increase  of 

No.  of  Experiments. 

Albumi- 
noids. 
Lb&. 

Non-nitro- 
genous 
nutrients. 
Lbs. 

live- weight 

per  day  and 

head. 

Lbs. 

7 

0.220 
0.268 
0.329 
0.384 

1.648 
1.557 

1.588 
1.538 

1  :7.49 
1  :5.81 
1  :  4.70 
1  :  4.01 

0  111 

13 

0  158 

20 

0  189 

19 , 

0  206 

These  numbers  speak  very  decidedly  for  the  favorable 
action  of  the  albuminoids  on  the  fat  production  ;  a  greater 
increase  of  weight  of  the  animal  accompanies  a  greater 
supply  of  albuminoids,  while  the  quantity  of  the  non-nitro- 
genous nutrients  is  nearly  the  same  in  all  the  groups,  and 
therefore  can  have  exerted  no  essential  influence  on  the 
increase  of  weight. 

If  we  take  into  account,  however,  the  fact  that,  in  all 
probability,  some  of  the  so-called  protein  in  these  experi- 
ments was  really  not  protein,  but  amides  or  similar  bodies, 
which,  though  they  may  aid  the  flesh  production,  can 
hardly  serve  as  a  source  of  fat,  the  number  of  cases 
which  indicate  a  formation  of  fat  from  carbhydrates  will 
probably  be  considerably  increased. 

Still  more  decided  results  pointing  toward  a  direct  par- 
ticipation of  the  carbhydrates  in  the  production  of  fat 
were  obtained  in  the  experiments  of  Ilenneberg,  Kern,  and 
Wattenberg,"  already  referred  to  for  another  purpose  in 
Chapter  I. 

In  this  investigation  two  sheep  were  killed  at  the  begin- 

*  Jour.  f.  Landw.,  Jahrg.  26,  p.  549. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDIISTG. 


179 


ning  of  the  experiment,  and  the  amount  of  the  various 
components  of  their  bodies  (flesh,  fat,  bones,  tendons,  etc.) 
determined  as  accurately  as  possible,  while  two  similar 
sheep  were  examined  in  the  same  way  after  having  been 
fattened  for  several  months. 

The  experimenters  themselves  did  not  consider  the  ques- 
tion of  the  origin  of  the  fat,  but  E.  v.  Wolff  *  has  shown 
from  their  results  that  a  portion  of  it  must  have  been 
formed  from  carbhydrates. 

The  carcases  of  the  unfattened  and  fattened  animals 
had  the  following  composition  : 


Dry  and  fat- 
free  flesh. 
Grms. 

Dry  fat. 
Grms. 

Fresh  bones. 
Grms. 

Fresh 
tendons. 
Grms. 

Unfattened 

2,465 

2,485 

5,406 
15,077 

2,530 
2,566 

2,488 

Fattened     

1,818 

Difference 

+20 

+9,671 

+36 

-670 

The  result  of  the  fattening  was  almost  wholly  a  gam  of 
fat. 

The  gain  of  9,671  grms.  of  fat  does  not  include  the  fat 
of  the  wool  nor  the  small  quantities  contained  in  skin, 
head,  legs,  etc.,  etc.,  which  would  probably  have  amounted 
to  200  grms.  more.  This,  however,  we  will  leave  out  of 
the  account. 

During  the  time  of  the  experiment  the  animals  digested 
about  9,490  grms.  of  protein  and  2,551  grms.  of  crude  fat 
(ether  extract).  Assuming  that  the  digested  ether  extract 
produced  an  equal  amount  of  fat,  which  is  hardly  proba- 


*Landw.  Jahrb.,  VIII.,  I.  Supplement,  p. 


180  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

ble,  and  also  that  the  digested  protein  yielded  51.4  per 
cent,  of  its  weight  of  fat,  we  obtain  the  following  num- 
bers : 

Grms. 

Fat  actually  gained 9,671 

Fat  from  ether  extract 2,554  grms. 

"      "     protein  (9,490  X  0.514) 4,878    ." 

Total 7,432 

Fat  unaccounted  for 2,239 

It  thus  appears  that  at  least  2,239  grms.  of  fat  must 
have  been  produced  from  carbhydrates.  In  reality  the 
amount  was  considerably  greater,  however.  Not  only  have 
we  not  taken  into  account  the  fat  of  the  offal,  but  the 
amount  of  protein  available  for  the  formation  of  fat  is  less 
than  appears  above.  In  the  first  place,  a  considerable 
growth  of  wool  took  place,  demanding,  of  course,  a  supply 
of  protein,  and  in  the  second  place,  one  of  the  feeding- 
stuffs  used  (lucerne  hay)  has  been  shown  by  KeUner  "^  to 
contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  amides,  which  were 
here  reckoned  as  albuminoids! 

These  results  indicate,  most  decidedly,  that  in  these  ex- 
periments a  considerable  amount  of  fat  was  formed  fi*om 
some  other  materials  of  the  food  than  fat  or  protein. 

Experiments  on  Swine. — Nearly  or  quite  all  the  ex- 
periments which  have  been  made  on  swine  have  yielded 
results  favorable  to  the  belief  in  the  formation  of  fat 
from  carbhydrates. 

The  earliest  investigations  were  those  of  Lawes  &  Gil- 
bert, in  1850,  which,  on  the  assumption  that  the  increase 
in  the  live  weight  had  the  composition  determined  by  them 

*  Landw.  Jahrb.,  VIIL,  I.  Supplement,  p.  243. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  181 

in  other  experiments  (see  pp.  9  and  176),  sliowed,  in  many 
cases,  a  greater  gain  of  fat  than  could  be  accounted  for  by 
the  protein  and  fat  of  the  food. 

Later  experiments  have  given  similar  and  even  more 
decided  results.  An  increase  of  100  pounds  in  the  live- 
weight  has  frequently  been  obtained  with  a  fodder  contain- 
ing 10  to  15  lbs.  of  fat  and  50  to  70  lbs.  of  protein.  In 
one  case  the  above  gain  was  made  on  a  fodder  containing 
only  40.8  lbs.  of  protein  and  6.8  lbs.  of  fat,  while  the  weight 
of  the  animals  increased  from  70.5  lbs.  at  the  beginning  of 
the  experiment  to  216.5  lbs.  at  its  close.  These  results 
appear  almost  incomprehensible  unless  we  admit  a  pro- 
duction of  fat  from  carbhydrates. 

Weiske  &  Wildt,*  in  Proskau,  have  attempted  to  solve 
the  problem  by  experiments  on  the  same  plan  as  those  of 
Henneberg,  Kern  &  Wattenberg  on  sheep.  Of  four  six- 
weeks-old  pigs,  two  were  kiUed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
experiment,  and  the  total  quantity  of  flesh  and  fat  in  their 
bodies  was  determined.  Of  the  other  two,  one  received  a 
fodder  rather  poor  in  protein  for  181  days.  The  second, 
which  was  to  have  been  fed  with  a  fodder  rich  in  protein, 
became  sick,  and  was  therefore  excluded  from  the  experi- 
ment. 

At  the  close  of  the  feeding,  the  sound  animal  was  killed 
and  the  flesh  and  fat  present  in  his  body  determined,  as  in 
the  two  other  animals  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment. 

On  the  assumption,  now,  that  the  first  two  pigs  had,  at 
the  time  they  were  killed,  the  same  composition  as  the  one 
which  was  fattened,  we  have  only  to  subtract  the  average 
of  the  former  fi'om  the  latter  to  find  the  amount  of  flesh 
and  fat  produced  during  the  feeding. 

*  Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologie,  X.,  1. 


182 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Protein. 
Kilos. 

Fat. 
KiloB. 

Fattened      .         

2.2835 

1.0410 

7.0138 

XJnfattened                  

0.8740 

Produced. . . . 

1.2425 
14.3244 

6.1398 

Digested  from 

food   

0.5748 

body 

Fat  formed  iu 

13.0819 

5.5650 

Protein  availa 
Available  prot 

ble  for  fat  formation 

sin  X  0.514  — 

6.724i 

According  to  these  figures,  the  protein  and  fat  of  the 
food  were  sufficient  to  cover  the  amount  of  fat  produced. 

Various  circumstances,  however,  unite  to  lessen  the 
vahie  of  the  result  reached.  From  some  cause,  the  growth 
of  the  animal  was  unusually  slow.  Fm-thermore,  the  fod- 
der used  consisted  of  potatoes,  rye  bran,  and  starch,  and 
at  the  time  when  this  research  was  made  the  presence  of 
amides  in  potatoes  had  not  been  discovered.  Since  then 
from  26.8  to  39.9  per  cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen  of  pota- 
toes has  been  found  in  various  experiments  to  exist  in  the 
form  of  amides,  and  if  we  take  this  fact  into  account,  the 
above  calculation  yields  very  different  results. 

Out  of  the  total  digested  protein,  11.1227  kilos,  came 
from  the  potatoes.  Assuming  26.8  per  cent,  of  this  to  be 
amides,  there  remain  8.1419  kilos.,  making,  with  3.2017 
kilos,  from  the  bran,  a  total  of  11.3-136  kilos,  of  true  pro- 
tein digested.* 

The  figures  then  stand  as  follows  : 

*  On  the  assumption  that  protein  and  amides  were  digested  to  the 
same  extent.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  the  amides  were  wholly 
digestible,  which  would  give  a  still  greater  deduction. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


18S 


Protein. 
Kilos. 

Fat. 
Kilos. 

Produced 

1.3425 
11.3436 

6  1398 

From  food 

0  5748 

Fat  formed  in  body 

10.1011 

5.5650 

Protein  available  for  fat  production 

Available  protein  x  0.514  — 

5.1920 

The  result  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  that  previously  ob- 
tained. The  difference  is  too  small  to  prove  a  formation 
of  fat  from  carbhjdrates,  more  especially  as  a  participation 
of  the  amides  in  fat-building  is  noi  altogether  impossible, 
but  it  deprives  the  experiment  of  all  value  as  a  proof  that 
carbhydrates  do  not  furnish  material  for  fat. 

Some  late  feeding  experiments  on  swine  by  E.  v.  Wolff,* 
at  Hohenheim,  have  also  given  results  which  seem  to  show 
quite  plainly  a  formation  of  fat  from  carbhydrates.  A  gain 
of  100  pounds  was  made  from  an  amount  of  fodder  contain- 
ing from  47.1  to  71. 4  lbs.  of  digestible  protein,  and  from 
1.6  to  3.5  lbs.  of  digestible  fat.  The  larger  of  these  quan- 
tities could  yield,  at  most,  40.2  lbs.  of  fat,  while,  according 
to  Lawes  &  Gilbert,  100  lbs.  mcrease  would  contain  at 
least  70  lbs.  of  fat. 

Experiments  on  Dogs. — In  regard  to  the  dog,  we  can 
assert  that  in  no  case  is  the  assumption  of  a  formation  of 
fat  from  carbhydrates  necessary.  As  has  already  been 
mentioned,  large  quantities  of  fat  may  be  deposited  in  the 
body  from  the  fat  or  the  albuminoids  of  the  food ;  but 
in   twenty-two  respiration  experiments  made  by   Petten- 


*  Laudw.  Jahrbiicher,  VIII.,  I.   Supplement,  238. 


184  MAIS^UAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

kofer  &  Yoit,  the  fat  deposited  in  the  body  was  always 
f iilly  accounted  for  by  that  which  could  be  formed  from 
the  amount  of  albuminoids  decomposed  in  the  body,  and 
was  proportional  not  to  the  earbhydrates  but  to  the  albu- 
minoids of  the  food.  AVith  the  same  quantity  of  albumi- 
noids m  the  food,  an  increase  of  the  carbhydi'ates  caused  no 
increase  in  the  amount  of  fat  formed,  but  only  an  in- 
creased excretion  of  carbonic  acid,  showing  that  the  earb- 
hydrates were  rapidly  oxidized  in  the  blood.*  On  the 
other  hand,  an  increase  in  the  albuminoids  of  the  food — 
the  quantity  of  earbhydrates  remaining  the  same — caused 
a  very  considerable  increase  in  the  amount  of  fat  pro- 
duced, thus  showing  an  intimate  connection  between  the 
supply  of  protein  in  the  food  and  the  formation  of  fat  in 
the  body. 

Sources  of  Uncertainty. — Having  considered  the  ex- 
perimental evidence  bearing  on  the  question  of  the  sources 
of  animal  fat,  it  now  becomes  necessary  to  consider  briefly 
how  much  weight  attaches  to  this  evidence. 

It  must  be  admitted  at  once  that  the  data  now  at  our 
command  are  not  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  solve  the  prob- 
lem. Ko  thorough  and  accurate  scientific  study  of  the 
subject  has  yet  been  made,  if  we  except  Pettenkofer  & 
Voit's  experiments  on  dogs.  The  conclusions  drawn  in 
the  preceding  paragraphs  from  experhnents  on  farm  ani- 


*  It  should  be  said  that,  according  to  Zuntz  {Landw.  Jahrbucher, 
VIII.  94),  earbhydrates  cause  no  increase  in  the  excretion  of  carbonic 
acid  ichen  introduced  directly  into  the  blood,  but  only  when  taken  into 
the  alimentary  canal.  According  to  him,  the  increased  excretion  of 
carbonic  acid  is  caused  by  the  excitation  of  the  nerves  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines.  In  a  practical  point  of  view,  however,  the  result  is 
much  the  same,  since  the  earbhydrates  of  the  food  must  be  taken  into 
the  alimentary  canal,  and  it  makes  little  difference  whether  the  car* 
bonic  acid  is  produced  from  them  or  from  the  tissues  of  the  body. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  185 

mals  are  to  be  regarded  only  as  very  probable,  not  as  cer- 
tain. 

In  the  first  place,  we  do  not  know  how  much  fat  was 
actually  formed  in  these  experiments. 

The  estimates  of  its  amount,  based  on  the  composition 
of  the  increase  of  fattening  animals  as  determined  by 
Lawes  &  Gilbert,  are  obviously  very  uncertain ;  and  even 
in  such  experiments  as  those  of  Henneberg,  Kern  &  Wat- 
tenberg,  and  of  Weiske  &  Wildt,  it  is  highly  improbable 
that  the  animals  killed  and  analyzed  at  the  beginning  of 
the  experiments  had  exactly  the  composition  of  those  re- 
served to  be  fattened,  and  we  have  no  means  of  judging  of 
the  amount  of  the  difference. 

Again,  in  all  cases  we  have  assumed  that  100  parts  of 
protein  decomposed  m  the  body  gave  rise  to  51.4  parts 
of  fat. 

E^ow  this  number  is  a  purely  theoretical  one,  based  on 
a  calculation  by  Henneberg  of  the  greatest  amount  of  fat 
which  could  possibly  be  formed  from  a  given  weight  of 
protein;  and,  while  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  fat  is 
formed  from  protein,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  this 
maximum  amount  is  formed  in  every,  or  even  in  any,  case. 
It  is  a  commonly  observed  fact  that  when  a  chemical  com- 
pound breaks  up  into  simpler  bodies,  some  of  its  latent 
energy  is  set  free,  either  as  heat  or  in  some  other  form. 
Zuntz  ij.oc,  cit.j  p.  96)  has,  however,  shown  that  such  a 
formation  of  fat  and  urea  from  protein  as  we  have  been 
supposing,  is  only  possible  on  the  condition  that  the  result- 
ing products  contain  all  the  latent  energy  of  the  decom- 
posed protein,  and  that  none  is  given  off  in  the  decompo- 
sition. This,  Zuntz  remarks,  is  a  process  wholly  without 
analogy  in  the  animal  body,  where  all  decompositions  are 
accompanied  by  the  setting  free  of  considerable  quantities 


186  MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

of  heat.  Without  laying  too  much  stress  upon  this  point, 
we  must  still  admit  its  importance. 

If  Zuntz's  ground  be  well  taken,  then  it  would  appear 
that  in  all  the  calculations  on  this  subject  we  must  reduce 
the  amount  of  fat  obtainable  from  the  protein  of  the  food, 
leaving  still  more  to  be  formed  from  other  nutrients. 

Conclusions. — The  following  conclusions  regarding  the 
sources  of  animal  fat  appear  to  be  justified  by  our  present 
knowledge  on  the  subject : 

1st.  Animal  fat  may  be  formed  from  the  fat  of  the 
food. 

2d.  It  may  be  formed  from  the  protein  of  the  food. 

3d.  Assuming  the  accuracy  of  the  factor  0.614  for  the 
conversion  of  protein  into  fat,  the  amount  of  fat  produced 
by  the  dog  is  covered  by  the  protein  and  fat  of  the  food. 

4th.  Kuminants  have  in  some  cases  produced  less,  and 
in  some  cases  more,  fat  than  could  be  accounted  for  by  the 
protein  and  fat  of  the  fodder. 

5th.  Swine  have,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  produced 
more  fat  than  could  have  been  formed  from  the  protein 
and  fat  of  the  food. 

When  we  consider  the  fact  that  the  proofs  of  the  for- 
mation of  fat  exclusively  from  protein  are  essentially 
negative  in  their  nature,  while  those  of  its  formation  from 
carbhydrates  are  direct,  it  would  seem  that  we  must  admit 
that  the  carbhydrates  may  serve  as  a  source  of  fat  to  swine, 
and  also,  under  some  circumstances  at  least,  to  herbivora. 
This,  however,  is  equivalent  to  admitting  it  for  all  animals, 
since  there  are  no  essential  differences  known  in  the  nutri- 
tive processes  of  the  higher  animals. 

With  our  present  imperfect  knowledge,  we  must  regard 
both  protein  and  carbhydrates  as  sources  of  fat,  while  the 
final  settlement  of  the  question,  as  well  as  the  determina- 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  187 

tion  of  the  part  played  by  each,  must  be  left  to  the  deci- 
sion of  more  exact  experiments. 

Having  thus  considered  at  some  length  the  important 
question  of  the  sources  of  animal  fat,  we  are  prepared  to 
take  up  the  general  laws  which  regulate  its  formation.  It 
is  evident,  however,  that  until  we  know  with  certainty  the 
source  from  whence  the  fat  of  the  body  is  derived,  our  at- 
tempts to  formulate  the  laws  of  its  production  must  be 
more  or  less  tentative.  Most  of  our  knowledge  upon  this 
subject  is  due  to  the  labors  of  Pettenkofer  &  Yoit  at  Mu- 
nich. These  investigators  hold  that  fat  is  not  formed 
from  carbhydrates  in  the  body,  and  their  experiments, 
which  were  made  before  many  of  the  facts  spoken  of  in 
the  preceding  paragraphs  were  known,  are  interpreted  in 
accordance  with  that  belief.  If  we  add  to  this  fact  the 
great  labor  involved  in  investigations  of  this  kind,  the  use 
of  the  complicated  respiration  apparatus  being  essential, 
we  can  readily  imderstand  why  our  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  the  formation  of  fat  should  be  in  some  respects  unsatis- 
factory. At  the  same  time,  what  is  already  known  is  very 
valuable  and  offers  important  aid  to  the  formation  of  a 
rational  theory  of  feeding. 

§  2.  Feeding  with  Fat  Alone. 

The  Fat  of  the  Food  protects  the  Body-fat.  —  In 

Pettenkofer  &  Yoit's  experiments^  a  dog  was  in  one 
case  allowed  to  fast  for  eight  days,  and  in  a  second  experi- 
ment was  fed  daily  with  100  grammes  of  pure  fat,  about 
the  amount  which  was  found  to  have  been  oxidized  daily 
in  the  first  experiment.  On  the  eighth  day  the  following 
results  were  obtained : 


Zeitschrift  f.  Biologie,  V.,  369. 


188  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDIXG. 


Grms. 

Grms. 

Fat  eaten  Der  dav                .        . .  • 

100 

159 

111 

+6 

0 

Consumption  of  flesh  in  body 

"             "  fat*       ''       .... 
Gain(  +  )  or  loss  (-)  of  fat 

138 

114 

-99 

While,  as  we  have  ah-eadv  learned,  fat  does  not  hinder 
the  protein-consumption  in  the  body  but  rather  tends 
to  increase  it,  when  fed  alone,  the  loss  of  fat  is  entirely 
stopped  by  a  quantity  equal  to  that  lost  in  hunger.  That 
is,  an  increased  supply  of  fat  does  not,  like  an  increase  of 
albuminoids,  augment  the  consumption,  but  takes  the  place 
of  that  before  consumed,  pound  for  pound. 

The  simplest  way  of  explaining  this  is  by  the  assump- 
tion that  the  fat  of  the  food  is  more  easily  oxidized  than 
that  already  deposited  in  the  body,  and  that  the  former 
therefore  possesses  itself  of  the  oxygen  of  the  blood  and 
protects  the  latter  from  oxidation. 

A  Gain  of  Fat  may  accompany  a  Loss  of  Flesh. — 
In  another  experiment,  in  which  a  large  quantity  (350 
grammes  daily)  of  fat  was  fed,  the  loss  of  flesh  on  the 
second  day  amounted  to  227  grammes,  and  at  the  same 
time  1S6  grammes  of  fat  were  retained  in  the  body.  The 
same  fact  is  shown  by  the  second  experiment  on  p.  172. 

§  3.  Feeding  with  Protein  Alone. 

Protein  can  protect  the  Fat  of  the  Body  from  Oxi- 
dation.— The  following  experiments  by  Pettenkofer  <fe 
Voit,t  on  a  dog  fed  exclusively  with  meat,  were  made  with 
the  help  of  the  respiration  apparatus : 

*  Including  that  formed  from  protein, 
f  Zeitschrift  f.  Biologie,  VII.,  489. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


189 


Meat  fed. 
Grms. 

Flesh  conBumed 

in  body. 

Grms. 

Gain  (  +  ) 

or  los8(-)  of  flesh. 

Grms. 

Gain(  +  ) 

orloss(-)  of  fat. 

Grms. 

0 

500 
1,000 
1,500 
1,800 
2,000 
2,500 

165 
599 
1079 
1,500 
1,757 
2,044 
2,512 

-165 
-99 
-79 
0 
+  43 
-44 
-12 

-95 

-47 
-19 

+4 

-t-1 

+58 

+  57 

While  wit5i  «t  small  ration  of  meat  the  animal  lost  both 
flesh  and  fat,  a  medium  ration  (1,500  grammes)  sufficed  to 
stop  the  loss,  not  only  of  flesh  but  also  of  fat,  and  larger 
amounts,  while  they  could  not,  for  the  reasons  explained 
in  the  preceding  chapter,  cause  any  considerable  gain  of 
flesh,  did  cause  a  gain  of  fat ;  i.  e.,  not  only  did  the  albu- 
minoids protect  the  body-fat  from  oxidation,  but  new  fat 
was  formed  from  them  and  laid  up  in  the  body. 

These  results  are  most  simply  explained  by  the  assump- 
tion that  the  fat  formed  in  the  body  from  albuminoids, 
like  that  contained  as  such  in  the  food,  is  more  readily 
oxidized  than  that  already  stored  up  in  the  body. 

Incidentally  these  experiments  give  proof  of  the  possi- 
bility of  the  formation  of  fat  from  protein,  and  also  of  the 
statement  just  made  that  a  gain  of  fat  may  accompany  a 
loss  of  flesh. 

§  4.  Feeding  with  Protein  and  Fat. 

Protein  protects  the  Fat  of  the  Food  from  Oxi- 
dation.—Since  in  the  fodder  of  herbivorous  animals  fat  is 
usually  present  in  small  quantity,  and  is  of  comparatively 


190 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


little  importance,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  in  outline 
the  general  results  of  experiments  on  carnivorous  animals. 
It  has  already  been  shown  that  fat  is  produced  in  the 
body  in  the  decomposition  of  albuminoids,  and  that  with 
a  comparatively  large  amount  of  the  latter  the  fat  thus 
formed  may  equal  the  amount  oxidized  in  the  body. 

If,  now,  to  such  a  ration  we  add  a  certain  quantity  of 
fat,  say  100  grammes,  we  have  just  so  much  more  fat 
available  for  deposition  in  the  body,  since  the  consumption 
of  fat  does  not  increase  with  the  supply  as  does  that  of  the 
albuminoids. 

Thus,  in  a  series  of  experiments  made  by  Pettenkofer 
&  Yoit,*  a  dog  was  fed  daily  1,500  grammes  of  meat,  a 
quantity  which  had  been  found  sufficient  to  keep  him  in 
equilibrium  both  as  regards  flesh  and  fat,  and  received 
also  varying  quantities  of  fat. 


Food. 

Effect  on  Body. 

Meat. 
Grras. 

Fat. 
Grmc. 

Consumption 
of  flesh. 
Grms. 

Gain  of  flesh. 
Grms. 

Consumption 
of  fat.t 
Grms. 

Gain  of  fat. 
Grms. 

1,500 
1,500 
1,500 
1,500 
1,500 

30 

60 

100 

100 

150 

1,457 
1,501 
1,403 
1,451 
1,455 

+43 
-  1 

+98 
+  49 

+45 

158 
186 
163 
151 
174 

32 

39 

91 

109 

136 

The  addition  of  fat  caused  a  deposition  of  it  in  the  body, 
and  the  amount  thus  laid  up  was,  in  nearly  every  case,  pro- 
portional to  that  fed. 

*  Zeitschrift  f.  Biologie,  IX.,  30. 

f  Including  the  fat  produced  from  protein. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING  191 

Tliat  is,  the  amount  of  fat  yielded  by  the  decomposition 
of  the  albuminoids  was  sufficient  to  supply  what  was 
needed  for  the  vital  processes,  and  the  extra  amount  added 
was  stored  up  in  the  body.  This  is  generally  expressed  by 
saying  that  the  fat  produced  from  the  albuminoids  is  more 
easily  oxidized  than  that  of  the  food,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  the  protein  protects  the  fat  from  oxidation,  but  there 
seems  to  be  no  absolute  proof  that  such  is  the  case.  There 
is  simply  an  excess  of  fat  present  over  that  required,  and 
this  excess  is  laid  up  against  future  needs.  The  fat  pro- 
duced from  the  albuminoids  is  always  to  be  added  to  that 
given  in  the  food  in  estimating  the  effect  of  a  fodder.  If 
much  protein  is  fed,  the  protein  consumption  in  the  body 
will  be  great,  and  while  little  or  no  organized  protein  is 
.produced,  large  quantities  of  fat  may  be  laid  on.  A  too 
great  accumulation  of  circulatory  protein,  however,  is  to 
be  avoided,  since  it  increases  the  rapidity  of  the  circulation 
of  fluids  in  the  tissues,  and  tends  to  produce  a  more  rapid 
oxidation. 

§  5.  Feeding  with  Protein  and  Carbhydrates. 

The  only  really  scientific  experiments  on  this  point  are 
by  Pettenkofer  &  Yoit,"^  who,  as  we  have  seen,  do  not  be- 
lieve in  the  possibility  of  a  formation  of  fat  from  carbhy- 
drates. The  experiments  and  results  now  to  be  given  form 
a  powerful  argument  in  favor  of  the  correctness  of  their 
view  in  its  application  to  the  animal  experimented  on. 
At  the  same  time  we  must  not  forget  that  other  experi- 
ments strongly  indicate  that,  in  some  cases,  fat  is  formed 
directly  from  carbhydrates. 

*  Zeitscbrift  f.  Biologie,  IX.,  435. 


192 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING. 


Carbhydrates  may  be  Oxidized  instead  of  Fat. — 

By  the  addition  of  carbhydrates  to  albuminoid  food  the 
protein  consumption  is,  indeed,  somewhat  decreased,  but 
never  stopped ;  but  the  carbhydrates,  when  present  in  suf- 
ficient quantity,  may  protect  entirely  from  oxidation  the  fat 
of  the  body,  and  also  the  fat  of  the  food  and  that  formed 
from  protein.  This  effect  of  the  carbhydrates  becomes 
evident  when  we  compare  some  of  the  experiments  in 
which  the  animal  was  fed  on  meat  alone  with  those  in 
which  the  same  quantity  of  meat  was  fed  with  the  addition 
of  starch  or  sugar. 


Food. 

Nutritive  Effbct. 

Meat. 
Grms. 

starch  or 
sugar. 
Grms. 

Fat. 
Grms. 

Consumption 
of  flesh. 
Grms. 

Loss  of 
flesh. 
Grms. 

Consumption 
of  fat.* 
Grms. 

Gain  of 

fat. 
Grms. 

500 
500 

500 

167 
182 

6 

599 
530 
537 

99 
30 
37 

108 
50 
43 

-47 
+  14 
+  16 

The  carbhydrates  of  the  food  in  the  second  and  third 
experiments  caused  the  fat  consumption  to  decrease  to  less 
than  half  its  former  amount  and  made  a  corresponding 
gain  of  fat  possible.  This  they  apparently  accomplished 
by  possessing  themselves  of  the  oxygen  which  otherwise 
would  have  combined  with  the  fat ;  in  other  w^ords,  they 
were  oxidized  in  place  of  the  latter. 

Difference  in  the  Action  of  Carbhydrates  and  Fat. 
■ — Pettenkofer  &  Yoit  have  found  that  while  an  increase 


*  Including  that  formed  from  protein. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  193 

of  fat  in  the  food  causes  an  increased  deposition  of  fat  in 
the  body,  an  increase  of  the  carbhydrates  does  this  only 
up  to  a  certain  limit.  For  example,  if  fat  be  fed  to  a  fast- 
ing animal  in  more  than  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the 
necessary  consumption,  the  excess  is  deposited  in  the  body, 
and  the  more  fat  is  fed  the  more  is  thus  deposited.  If 
carbhydrates  be  fed  in  this  way,  tliey  are  oxidized  in  the 
blood,  and  a  corresponding  quantity  of  the  body-fat  and  of 
that  produced  from  the  decomposition  of  the  albuminoids 
of  the  body  is  protected  fi*om  destruction.  If  enough 
carbhydrates  are  fed,  all  the  fat  separated  fi'om  the  pro- 
tein may  be  deposited  as  body-fat.  Thus  far  the  action  is 
essentially  like  that  of  fat,  but  if  we  increase  the  carbhy- 
drates heyond  this  point  wc  get  no  further  laying  on  of  fat. 
The  quantity  of  fat  deposited  in  the  body  under  such  cir- 
cumstances is  found  to  be  proportional  to  the  amount  of 
the  protein  consumption,  and  the  excess  of  carbhydrates  is 
simply  burned  up,  producing  an  increased  excretion  of  car- 
bonic acid."^  Essentially  the  same  results  were  obtained 
when  carbhydrates  were  fed  along  with  albuminoids.  In 
no  case  was  the  gain  of  fat  greater  than  corresponded  to 
the  ready-formed  fat  of  the  food  and  that  which  could  be 
produced  from  the  albuminoids,  and  any  excess  of  carbhy- 
drates over  that  required  to  protect  this  amount  of  fat  from 
oxidation  produced  no  effect  except  an  increased  excretion 
of  carbonic  acid. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  observed  that  when  a 
large  quantity  of  carbhydrates  are  fed,  and  the  albumi- 
noids are  gradually  increased,  the  gain  of  fat  also  in- 
creases. 

The  following  experiments  illustrate  this : 

*  See  foot-note,  p.  184. 


104 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Carbhydrates  (starch) 

of  food. 

Grms. 

Meat  of  food. 
Grms. 

Flesh  consumption. 
Grms. 

Gain  of  fat. 
Grms. 

379 
379 
379 

800 
1,800 

211 

608 

1,469 

41 

69 
122 

Tlie  increased  oxidation  of  albuminoids  in  the  body 
furnished  more  material  for  the  formation  of  fat,  and  the 
carbhjdrates  were  suflScient  to  protect  a  large  part  of  it 
from  oxidation.  These  and  similar  researches  obviously 
speak  strongly  in  favor  of  the  theory  that  fat  is  formed 
from  the  albuminoids  and  not  from  the  carbhydrates. 

Naturally,  a  certain  relation  must  subsist  between  the 
latter  and  the  amount  of  fat  formed.  Since  the  carbhy- 
drates protect  the  fat  from  oxidation,  a  greater  quantity  of 
them  must  protect  more  fat  up  to  a  certain  limit ;  but  if 
more  carbhydrates  are  given  than  are  necessary  to  protect 
the  fat,  the  excess  seems  not  to  produce  fat  but  to  be 
oxidized. 

The  relative  Effect  of  Fat  and  Carbhydrates  in 
effecting  a  gain  of  fat  or  protecting  the  body  fat  from 
oxidation,  is  not  in  proportion  to  their  respiration  equiva- 
lents. 

By  the  respiration  equivalent,  as  explained  on  p.  157,  we 
understand  the  relative  quantities  of  heat  which  equal 
weights  of  the  given  substances  will  produce  when  com- 
pletely burned. 

It  may  be  expressed  in  another  way  by  saying  that  they 
represent  the  relative  amounts  of  oxygen  with  which  equal 
weights  of  the  given  substances  combine  when  completely 
oxidized.     Thus,  if  a  certain  weight  of  starch,  e.  ^.,  re- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  195 

quires  for  its  complete  combustion  one  gramme  of  oxygen, 
the  same  weight  of  fat  will  require  2.5  grammes  of  oxygen ; 
and  if  we  represent  the  respiration  equivalent  of  starch  by 
1,  that  of  fat  is  2.5,  while  that  of  the  other  carbhydrates 
is  practically  equal  to  that  of  starch,  viz.,  1. 

Since,  now,  the  chief  office  of  the  carbhydrates  seems 
to  be  to  protect  other  substances  from  oxidation  by  them- 
selves combining  ^\dth  the  oxygen,  we  might  naturally  ex- 
pect that  one  part  of  fat  would  be  equivalent  in  this  respect 
to  2.5  parts  of  a  carbhydrate  ;  and  before  any  exact  obser- 
vations had  been  made,  this  was  assumed  to  be  the  case. 
The  few  experiments  as  yet  made,  however,  have  shown 
that  this  assumption  is  erroneous,  and  that  one  part  of  fat 
is  equivalent  not  to  2.5  parts  of  a  carbhydrate,  but  to  only 
about  1.75  parts,  while,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  157),  their 
action  in  decreasing  the  protein  consumption  is  about  the 
same,  weight  for  weight.  In  the  animal  body  we  have  to 
do,  not  with  a  machine  into  which  fuel  is  put  to  be  burned, 
but  with  a  living  organism.  The  materials  of  the  body 
and  the  food  are  decomposed  in  the  performance  of  the 
vital  processes,  while  the  burning  of  them  by  the  oxygen 
of  the  blood  is  only  a  secondary  process,  and  any  conclu- 
sions drawn  fi-om  the  chemical  composition  of  nutrients 
and  their  behavior  outside  the  body,  are  of  very  uncertain 
application  to  the  complicated  processes  which  take  place 
within  it. 

The  importance  of  these  facts  for  the  practice  of  feed- 
ing is  obvious.  The  carbhydrates  are  the  cheapest  of  the 
nutrients,  and  the  most  easily  digestible,  while  fat  is  ex- 
pensive and  difficult  of  digestion  by  herbivorous  animals. 
When  we  add  to  the  two  facts  just  mentioned — viz.,  the 
equivalence  of  fat  and  carbhydrates  in  their  effect  on  flesh 
production,  and  the  value  of  the  latter  as  an  aid  to  fat  pro- 


106  MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 

duction — the  possibility  of  a  direct  formation  of  fat  from 
carbhydrates,  the  great  importance  of  this  class  of  nutrients 
becomes  evident. 

Fattening. — In  fattening  animals  for  market,  the  chief 
endeavor  is  to  produce  fat,  and  only  in  a  subordinate  de- 
gree to  cause  a  formation  of  flesh.  Indeed,  after  an 
animal  has  completed  its  growth  but  little  more  formation 
of  actual  flesh  (organized  protein)  takes  place,  although 
the  quantity  of  circulatory  protein,  and  so  the  juiciness  of 
the  meat,  may  be  increased. 

In  all  cases,  a  certain  minimum  amount  of  protein  and 
non-nitrogenous  nutrients  is  necessary  to  maintain  an  ani- 
mal in  statu  quo  j  but  this  amount' varies  according  to  the 
condition  of  the  body.  If  the  latter  is  rich  in  circulatory 
protein  on  account  of  previous  rich  feeding,  the  food  must 
contain  much  protein ;  if  it  contains  little  circulatory  pro- 
tein, a  small  amount  of  albuminoids  in  the  fodder  will 
suffice.  If  the  body  is  fat,  a  smaller  ration  of  albuminoids 
is  necessary  to  maintain  its  condition  than  when  it  is  lean. 

If  we  increase  the  fodder  beyond  the  amount  necessary 
for  maintenance,  a  production  of  some  sort  results. 

If  the  amount  of  the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  be  in- 
creased, we  shall  get  (up  to  a  certain  limit  at  least)  a  pro- 
duction of  fat ;  if  the  protein  be  increased,  we  shall  have 
an  increased  protein  consumption  in  the  body,  but  also  a 
gain  both  of  flesh  and  fat. 

The  proper  proportions  of  nitrogenous  and  non-nitro- 
genous nutrients  in  a  fodder,  then,  obviously  depend  on 
the  object  of  the  feeding.  If  we  desire  to  render  the  body 
rich  in  protein,  to  cause  a  good  development  of  its  organs, 
and  render  it  capable  of  great  exertions,  we  shall  feed 
plenty  of  albuminoids  together  with  enough  non-nitro- 
genous nutrients  to  protect  the  fat  of  the  body  from  oxi- 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDITTG.  197 

dation  and  to  diminish  the  protein  consumption  as  much 
as  possible  while  not  causing  any  considerable  fattening, 
and  we  shall  give  the  animal  as  much  of  this  fodder  as 
possible,  because  the  greater  the  amount  of  food  of  a  given 
composition  eaten,  the  greater,  other  things  being  equal,  is 
both  the  absolute  and  the  relative  production.    (See  p.  167.) 

On  the  other  hand,  if  we  wish  to  fatten  the  animal,  we 
shall  proceed  differently.  With  any  given  number  of 
pounds  of  protein  in  the  daily  fodder,  the  greater  the 
amount  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  taken  into  the  sys- 
tem the  more  fat  is  protected  fi-om  oxidation  and  the  less 
becomes  the  protein  consumption.  In  other  words,  having 
once  fixed  on  the  number  of  pounds  of  protein  to  be  given 
per  day  and  head,  the  more  carbhydrates  and  fat  we  can 
introduce  into  the  system  along  with  it  the  greater  will  be 
the  production  both  of  flesh  and  fat. 

We  shall  consequently  incline  to  make  the  nutritive 
ratio  of  our  fattening  fodder  wider  than  that  for  working^ 
animals  ;  but  in  doing  this  we  shall  not  forget  that  a  cer- 
tain absolute  amount  of  protein  is  necessary. 

Leaving  out  of  account  the  possible  formation  of  fat 
'from  carbhydrates,  there  is  no  doubt  that  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  protein  in  the  fodder  is  essential  to  rapid  and 
profitable  fattening,  especially  of  ruminants,  while  it  is,  of 
course,  the  only  source  of  material  for  the  formation  of 
flesh.  Since,  now,  an  animal  can  consume  only  a  certain 
total  amount  of  food,  our  first  care  will  be  to  see  that  that 
food  contains  enough  protein ;  while,  in  the  second  place, 
we  shall  introduce  into  it  enough  carbhydrates  and  fat  to 
insure  a  production  of  fat  and  prevent  any  unnecessary 
protein  consumption. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  a  consideration  of  the  general 
principles  brought  out  in  the  last  two  chapters  leads  to  im* 


198  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

portant  practical  conclusions.  The  application  of  these 
general  principles  to  the  feeding  of  domestic  animals,  the 
determination  of  the  quantity  and  proportions  of  the  various 
nutrients  which  are  necessary  to  attain  most  speedily  and 
profitably  the  various  ends  of  feeding,  forms  the  object  of 
the  science  of  cattle- feeding,  and  it  is  the  clear  recogni- 
tion of  this  fact  and  the  intelligent  pursuit  of  this  object 
which  has  caused  the  rapid  advances  of  the  past  few  years. 
Wliat  has  already  been  achieved  in  this  respect  will 
form  the  subject-matter  of  Part  III. 

§  6.  Influence  of  Other  CoNDmoNs  on  the  Production  of  Fat. 

Influence  of  the  Fat  of  the  Body. — In  a  body  rich 
in  fat  the  total  fat-consumption,  and  also  the  proportion  of 
the  fat  of  the  food  which  is  oxidized,  is  greater  than  when 
the  body  contains  little  fat ;  in  the  latter  case,  the  fat  from 
the  food,  or  from  the  oxidation  of  the  albuminoids,  is  more 
readily  stored  up,  while  in  the  former  case  greater  obsta- 
cles seem  to  stand  in  the  way  of  a  fm^ther  accumulation  of 
fat. 

Excessive  Drinking. — According  to  our  present  knowl- 
edge, excessive  drinking  of  water  increases  the  consump- 
tion of  fat  in  the  body,  just  as  it  does  that  of  the  protein. 
(See  p.  135.)  Too  watery  fodder  and  too  much  drinking 
are  therefore  to  be  avoided,  especially  in  fattening,  if  we 
wish  to  attain  the  most  rapid  and  abundant  formation  of 
flesh  and  fat. 

Toe  io-w  or  too  high  a  Temperature  of  the  stall 
seems  also  to  act  unfavorably  on  fattening :  the  first,  be- 
cause an  hicreased  oxidation  of  food  constituents  is  neces- 
sary to  maintain  the  ^dtal  heat ;  the  second,  because  it 
causes  perspiration,  which  exerts  two  evil  effects :  first,  by 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  199 

causing  increased  drinking,  and  second,  by  absorbing  heat 
from  the  body  by  its  evaporation,  just  as  water  sprinkled 
on  the  floor  on  a  hot  day  absorbs  heat  as  it  evaporates,  and 
so  cools  the  room.  Every  such  loss  of  heat  is  equivalent 
to  a  loss  of  substance,  since  the  heat  is  produced  by  the 
oxidation  of  the  materials  of  the  body  or  of  the  food.  Too 
high  a  temperature  is  also  liable  to  make  the  animals  rest- 
less and  diminish  their  appetite.  A  medium  temperature 
of  from  55°  to  70°  F.  is  the  most  favorable  for  fattening. 

Muscular  Exertion,  as  we  shall  see  more  in  detail  in 
the  next  chapter,  increases  the  consumption  of  fat  very 
considerably.  Too  much  movement  by  fattening  or  milk- 
ing animals  is  therefore  to  be  avoided.  This  is  true  not 
only  of  outward  motions  but  of  the  internal  motions  of  the 
body  in  digestion,  etc.  If  a  very  bulky  fodder  be  given, 
the  increased  work  of  moving  it  in  and  through  the  diges- 
tive apparatus  cannot  but  have  its  influence  in  increasing 
the  oxidation  and  destruction  of  fat.  Doubtless  one  of  the 
advantages  of  concentrated  and  easily-digestible  fodders  is 
the  saving  in  internal  work  which  they  effect. 

The  Amount  of  Oxygen  taken  up  by  the  Blood 
IS  a  not  unimportant  factor  in  the  production  of  fat.  The 
decompositions  which  take  place  in  the  body  are,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  vital  processes,  and  the  taking  up  of 
oxygen  is  a  consequence  and  not 'a  cause  of  them. 

At  the  same  time,  the  maximum  amount  of  oxygen  that 
can  be  introduced  into  the  system  is  determined  by  the 
amount  of  blood  and  its  content  of  haemoglobin,  this  sub- 
stance being  the  active  agent  in  taking  up  the  gas,  and 
this,  of  course,  sets  a  limit  to  the  amount  of  matter  that  can 
be  oxidized  in  the  system.  Consequently  a  small  amount 
of  blood  and  a  small  proportion  of  haemoglobin  are  condi- 
tions favorable  for  the  production  of  fat. 


200  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

According  to  tlie  observations  of  Subbotin,'^  the  chief 
factor  in  determining  the  amount  of  haemoglobin  in  the 
blood  seems  to  be  the  nature  of  the  food.  The  blood  of 
a  dog,  e.  g.,  fed  on  a  richly  nitrogenous  diet,  was  found  to 
have  13.73  per  cent,  of  haemoglobin,  while  on  a  non-nitro- 
genous diet  it  sank  to  9.52  per  cent.  He  also  found  that 
the  blood  of  herbivorous  animals,  which  generally  receive 
a  fodder  comparatively  poor  in  nitrogen,  contained  less 
hgemoglobin  than  that  of  carnivorous  animals,  which  receive 
a  more  nitrogenous  food. 

We  shall  see  in  Chapter  YIII.  that  an  increase  of  the 
albuminoids  of  the  food  increases  the  capacity  of  the  body 
to  store  up  oxygen,  and  here  we  get  a  hint  as  to  the  way 
in  which  this  effect  may  be  produced. 

One  other  factor  determining  the  amount  of  lisemoglo- 
bin  seems  to  be  the  amount  of  fat  already  contained  in 
the  body.  Subbotin  found  considerably  less  in  the  blood 
of  lean  than  of  fat  animals. 

That  a  decrease  of  the  haemoglobin  aids  the  production 
of  fat  is  indicated  by  various  facts. 

In  some  parts  of  Germany  bleeding  is  resorted  to,  to  in- 
crease the  rapidity  of  fattening,  and  it  has  been  found  by 
respiration  experiments  that  this  operation,  while  it  in- 
creases the  protein  consumption,  decreases  that  of  fat, 
apparently  by  removing  part  of  the  blood  corpuscles 
(haemoglobin),  the  agents  by  which  oxygen  is  introduced 
into  the  system.  It  is  also  a  fact  of  experience  that  the 
body,  when  deficient  in  blood,  is  often  inclined  to  lay  on 
fat.  It  is  well  known,  too,  that  herbivorous  animals  are,  in 
general,  easier  to  fatten  than  carnivorous,  and  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  this  is  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the 


*Zeitscbr.  f.  Biologie,  VII.,  185. 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


201 


smaller  amount  of  haemoglobin  contained  in  their  blood, 
while  the  differences  observed  between  different  breeds  in 
this  respect  may  be  partly  owing  to  the  same  cause. 

In  cases  of  phosphorus-poisoning,  an  enormous  formation 
of  fat  is  observed,  amounting  sometimes  to  fatty  degener- 
ation of  the  tissues.  Phosphorus  acts  as  a  poison  by 
depriving  the  blood  of  oxygen,  and  as  one  of  the  effects  of 
this  we  see  an  abnormal  formation  of  fat,  due  apparently 
to  the  poverty  of  the  blood  as  regards  oxygen. 

The  amount  of  oxygen  taken  up  by  the  blood  must  also 
be  influenced  by  the  amount  of  lung  surface,  the  rapidity 
of  circulation  and  respiration,  etc. ;  but  while  it  is  a  popular 
and  perhaps  well-founded  belief  that  the  differences  ob- 
served between  different  animals  as  regards  ease  of  fatten- 
ing, are  largely  due  to  differences  in  build,  especially  in 
the  size  of  the  lungs,  there  has  been  as  yet  no  scientific 
study  of  this  interesting  question. 


CHAPTER  Yin, 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  WORK, 

In  its  most  general  sense,  the  production  of  work  means 
the  conversion  of  latent  into  actual  energy.  In  the  ani- 
mal, it  is  the  latent  energy  contained  in  the  various  com- 
ponents of  the  food  or  the  body,  which  is  thus  converted, 
during  the  resolution  of  these  components  into  simpler 
substances.  Every  ingredient  of  the  food  contains  a  cer- 
tain fixed  amount  of  force  ;  every  one  of  the  simpler  com- 
pounds into  which  it  may  split  up  in  the  body  also  con- 
tains its  smaller  but  equally  definite  amount  of  force,  and 
the  difference  between  the  latter  and  the  amount  contained 
in  the  original  substance  expresses  exactly  the  amount  of 
force  which  that  substance  is  capable  of  contributing  to 
the  body. 

The  production  of  force  in  the  body  has  been  compared 
to  the  operations  of  a  steam-engine. 

In  the  engine,  the  force  exerted  is  set  free  as  heat  from 
the  coal  burned  under  the  boiler,  and  is  then  converted,  by 
appropriate  mechanical  arrangements,  into  motion  of  the 
engine ;  in  the  body  the  force  set  free  by  the  combustion 
of  the  materials  of  the  food  appears  partly  as  heat  and 
partly  in  other  forms.  Just  as  the  burning  of  fuel  under  a 
steam-boiler  may  do  various  kinds  of  work,  such  as  heating, 
producing  chemical  change,  or  causing  motion  of  the  en- 
gine, which  motion,  again,  may  be  applied  to  various  pur- 
poses, such  as  pmnping  water  for  the  boiler,  drawing  coal 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  203 

for  the  fire,  driving  the  machinery  of  a  shop,  etc.,  so  the 
energy  set  free  in  the  body  takes  various  forms.  It  may 
appear  as  heat,  or  as  motion,  it  may  take  the  form  of  elec- 
trical currents,  or  it  may  produce  chemical  changes,  such  as 
the  formation  of  a  complex  compound  out  of  simple  ones. 
All  these  phenomena  we  class  together  under  the  general 
name  of  the  production  of  work. 

It  is  obvious  at  once  that  the  production  of  work  is  an- 
tagonistic to  the  formation  of  the  material  products  for 
which  animals  are  frequently  kept.  All  work  is  performed 
at  the  expense  of  food  or  tissue,  and  the  more  work  is  per- 
formed the  less  material  remains  for  the  production  of 
flesh,  fat,  milk,  etc. 

This  is  a  common  observation  as  regards  external  work 
— no  one  would  undertake  to  fatten  a  laboring  animal — 
but  it  is  equally  true  of  such  less  obvious  forms  of  work 
as  the  production  of  heat  or  of  chemical  change.  Plainly, 
then,  we  have  a  very  practical  interest  in  knowing  what 
constituents  of  the  food  or  of  the  body  are  destroyed  in 
the  performance  of  the  various  kinds  of  work,  since  all  the 
material  losses  thus  occasioned  must  finally  be  supplied  by 
the  food. 

One  kind  of  work,  viz.,  muscular  exertion,  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  study  and  controversy  ;  and  though  we  do 
not  even  yet  know  with  certainty  what  substance  or  sub- 
stances are  the  source  of  muscular  power,  yet  what  has 
been  learned  is  of  great  value.  Other  forms  of  work,  on 
the  contrary,  have  received  comparatively  little  attention, 
and  offer  a  wide  field  for  investigation. 

In  the  following  pages  we  shall  take  up  first  the  pro- 
duction of  external  work  and  its  bearings  on  the  feeding  of 
working  animals,  and  then  attend  to  a  few  considerations 
concerning  the  internal  work  of  the  body. 


204  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDINGo 

§  1.  Effects  of  Musciilar  Exeetion  on  Exceetion, 
Voit's  Experiments. — It  was  formerly  the  common 
belief  that  continued  activity  of  the  muscles  caused  a  wear- 
ing out  of  those  organs,  and,  as  a  consequence,  largely  in- 
creased the  protein  consumption  and  the  excretion  of 
nitrogen.  This  belief,  however,  was  never  founded  on 
experimental  evidence,  and  has  now  been  rendered  un- 
tenable in  its  original  form. 

Karl  Yoit,  of  Munich,  was  the  first  to  make  exact  ex- 
periments on  the  subject,  and  in  1860  he  published  the 
results  of  his  researches,*  which  showed  that,  contrary  to 
the  then  generally  accepted  theory,  muscular  exertion  did 
not  increase  the  amount  of  protein  decomposed  in  the  body. 
His  experiments  were  made  on  a  dog  weighing  about 
32  kilogrammes  (70  lbs.).  The  work  which  he  performed 
on  the  working-days  (by  running  in  a  treadmill)  was  very 
considerable,  being  estimated  at  1.7  kilogramme-metres  f 
per  second  for  the  whole  twenty-four  hours  (the  work 
being  actually  performed  in  six  periods  of  ten  minutes 
each),  while  the  work  performed  by  a  man  working  eight 
hours  in  the  twenty-four  is  estimated  at  only  2.3  kilo- 
gramme-metres per  second  for  the  twenty-four  hours.  In 
some  of  the  experiments  the  animal  received  no  food  ;  in 
others  he  was  given  a  daily  ration  of  1,500  grammes  of 
fat-free  meat,  with  which  amount  the  body  was  allowed  to 
come  into  equilibrium  before  the  beginning  of  the  experi- 
ment. The  diet  on  the  resting  and  working-days  was  al- 
ways the  same,  except  that  the  animal  was  allowed  to 
drink  all  the  water  he  desired.     Each  experiment  extended 

*  "  Untersuchungen  iiber  den  Einfluss  des  Kochsalzes,  des  Kaflfee's 
und  der  Muskelbewegungen  auf  den  Stoffwechsel,"  1860. 

f  A  kilogramme -metre  is  the  amount  of  force  required  to  raise  one 
kilogramme  through  a  space  of  one  metre,  in  opposition  to  gravity. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


205 


over  three  days.     The  following  results  are  averages  for 
twenty-four  hours : 


Number  of  Experiment. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


Meat  eaten. 
Grms. 


1,500 


Water 
drunk. 
Grms. 

Urine 

excreted. 

Grms. 

258 

186 

872 

518 

123 

145 

527 

186 

125 

143 

182 

1,060 

057 

1,330 

140 

1,081 

412 

1,164 

63 

1,040 

Urea 

exert  ted. 

Grmb. 


14.3 

16.6 

11.9 

12.3 

10.9 

109.8 

117.2 

109.9 

114.1 

110.6 


The  1,500  grammes  of  meat  eaten  in  Experiments  III. 
and  TV.  contained  1,138  grammes  of  water,  which  is  to  be 
added  to  the  amount  drunk. 

These  results  show,  at  most,  only  a  very  slight  increase 
of  the  protein  consumption  on  the  working  days.  On  the 
days  of  fasting  the  increase,  as  measured  by  the  excretion  of 
urea,  was  11.5  per  cent.,  and  with  the  meat  ration  only 
4.8  per  cent.  ;  and  even  this  small  increase  appears  to  be 
due,  not  to  the  work  but  to  the  greater  amount  of  water 
drunk  and  excreted  in  the  urine,  since,  as  we  have  already 
learned  (p.  135),  an  increased  excretion  of  water  in  the 
urine  causes  an  increase  in  the  protein  consumption.  Yoit 
found  that  an  increase  of  100  grammes  of  water  in  the 
urine  caused,  in  the  dog,  a  plus  of  1.7  grammes  of  urea. 
If  this  relation  is  applicable  to  the  above  experiments,  it 


206 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


practically  covers  the  comparatively  slight  increase  of  urea 
observed  on  the  working  days,  and  we  must  consequently 
assume  that  muscular  exertion  does  not  essentially  increase 
the  protein  consumption  in  the  body. 

Experiments  "by  Pettenkofer  &  Voit. — The  correct- 
ness of  this  conclusion  is  shown  by  some  subsequent  ex- 
periments by  Pettenkofer  &  Yoit  *  on  a  man,  in  which 
the  amount  of  water  drunk  was  regulated,  and  the  above- 
mentioned  source  of  uncertainty  thus  avoided.  In  these 
experiments  the  respiratory  products  were  also  determined, 
and  the  influence  of  work  upon  the  non-nitrogenous  con- 
stituents of  the  body  thus  ascertained. 

On  the  work-days  the  subject  of  the  experiments  turned 
for  nine  hours,  with  occasional  pauses,  a  heavy  wheel  pro- 
vided with  a  brake,  and  at  night  felt  fatigued  as  after  a 
hard  day's  work  or  a  long  march.  With  the  aid  of  the 
respiration  apparatus  the  following  numbers,  which  all  refer 
to  a  space  of  twenty-four  hours  and  are  mostly  the  average 
of  two  or  three  concordant  experiments,  were  obtained : 


Nitrogen 

of  urine. 

Grms. 

Carbonic 
acid  ex- 
creted. 
Grms. 

Wateb  Excreted. 

Oxygen 

taken  up. 

Grms. 

Number 

In  urine. 
Grms. 

Evaporated. 
Grms. 

of  experi- 
ments. 

Fasting. 

Rest 

12.4 

716 

1,006 

821 

762 

2 

Work 

12.3 

1,187 

746 

1,777 

1,072 

1 

AvKRAQE  Diet. 

Rest 

17.0 

928 

1,218 

931 

832 

3 

Work 

17.3 

1,209 

1,155 

1,727 

981 

2 

These  figures  prove  most  decidedly  that  the  protein  con- 
sumption is  no  greater  during  work  than  during  rest,  but 

♦  Zeitschrift  f.  Biologie,  U.,  478-500. 


MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


207 


that,  on  the  other  hand,  the  consumption  of  fat,  and  as  a 
result  the  excretion  of  carbonic  acid  and  taking  up  of  oxy- 
gen, is  greatly  increased,  as  is  also  the  amount  of  water 
evaporated  through  lungs  and  skin.  In  hunger  the  differ- 
ence between  the  carbonic  acid  in  rest  and  in  work  is  more 
considerable  (471  grammes)  than  on  an  average  diet  (281 
grammes)  ;  the  oxygen  shows  a  similar  result,  310  grammes 
against  148  grammes,  while  the  differences  in  the  water 
evaporated  are  relatively  less,  viz.,  956  and  796  grammes. 
One  might  perhaps  be  inclined  to  believe  that  while  the 
total  amount  of  albuminoids  consumed  in  the  twenty-four 
hours  was  the  same,  the  amount  was  larger  during  the 
period  of  work,  and  correspondingly  less  during  the  hours 
of  rest.  In  order  to  test  this,  the  experiments  were  each 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  time  from  6  a.m.  to  6  p.m.,  in 
the  course  of  which  the  work  was  performed,  being  desig- 
nated as  day,  and  the  time  from  6  p.m.  to  6  a.m.  as  night. 
The  following  results  were  obtained  for  the  nitrogen,  car- 
bonic acid,  and  water  excreted  : 


Fasting. 

Average  Diet. 

Rest. 

Work. 

Rest. 

Work. 

Day. 
Grms. 

Night. 
Grms. 

Day. 

Grms. 

Night. 
Grms. 

Day. 
Grms. 

Night. 
Grms. 

Day. 
Grms. 

Night. 
Grms. 

Urinary  nitro- 
gen *  

Carbonic  acid.. 

Water    evapo- 
rated   

7.07 
403.00 

454.00 

5.82 
3l:i00 

367.00 

5.91 
930.00 

1,425.00 

6.35 
257.00 

352.00 

8.88 
533.00 

441.00 

7.99 
395.00 

490.00 

8.95 
856.00 

1,065.00 

8.12 
353.00 

662.00 

*  The  slight  difEerences  between  these  figures  and  those  of  the  table 
on  p.  206  are  due  to  discrepancies  in  the  original  account  of  the  experi- 
ments. 


208  MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDTNG. 

These  results  show,  first,  tliat  the  decompositions,  both 
of  protein  and  of  non-nitrogenous  matters,  going  on  in  the 
body  are  more  active  during  the  waking  hours  than  at 
night,  a  fact  which  has  been  abundantly  confirmed  by 
other  observations ;  and  second,  that  the  performance  of 
muscular  work  during  the  day  has  practically  no  effect  on 
the  extent  of  the  protein  consumption,  while  it  largely  in- 
creases the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  and  water  exhaled 
during  the  day. 

That  muscular  exertion  causes  an  increased  excretion  of 
carbonic  acid  and  water  is  universally  acknowledged  ;  but, 
in  spite  of  the  decisive  results  of  Pettenkofer  &  Yoit,  and 
the  corroborative  results  of  various  other  investigators,  the 
fact  of  the  constancy  of  the  nitrogen  excretion  under  the 
influence  of  work  has  been  disputed. 

Excretion  of  Gaseous  Nitrogen. — That  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances  no  excretion  of  free  nitrogen  from  the 
body  takes  place  has  been  already  shown ;  but  it  has  been 
sometimes  claimed  that  in  severe  work  a  portion  of  the 
nitrogen  coming  from  the  destruction  of  the  albuminoids 
is  excreted  in  the  gaseous  form  through  skin  and  lungs, 
and  that  consequently  the  protein  consumption  cannot  be 
calculated  from  the  ui-inary  nitrogen.  According  to  this, 
the  close  agreement  observed  in  the  above  and  many  other 
experiments  between  the  urinary  nitrogen  on  the  days  of 
rest  and  work  is  entirely  accidental — a  thing  which  is  cer- 
tainly very  improbable  of  itself,  and  which  is  disproved  by 
the  following  considerations  and  experimental  results. 

If,  in  consequence  of  work,  the  total  protein  consump- 
tion is  considerably  increased,  there  must  be  a  correspond- 
ingly increased  excretion  of  sulphuric  and  phosphoric  acids 
in  the  urine ;  for  with  every  portion  of  albuminoid  tissue 
destroyed,  the  sulphur  and  phosphorus  which  it  contains 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  209 

iimst  be  oxidized  to  sulpliuric  and  phosphoric  acids  and 
linally  leave  the  body  in  the  urine,  since  these  acids  cannot 
assume  the  gaseous  form  at  the  temperature  of  the  body. 
In  the  above  experiments  the  quantity  of  these  acids  was 
determined  in  the  experiments  made  on  an  average  diet, 
and  the  following  results  obtained : 


Sulphuric  acid. 
Grins. 

Phosphoric  acid. 
Grms. 

Rest 

2.61 
2.57 

4.19 

Work 

4.11 

The  quantities  in  rest  and  work  are  identical  within  the 
limits  of  error. 

Kellner's  Experiments. — Almost  all  investigators  who 
have  experimented  upon  this  subject  have  obtained  results 
agreeing  in  the  main  with  those  of  Pettenkofer  &  Yoit, 
while  most  of  those  who  have  reached  contrary  conclusions 
have  used  palpably  imperfect  methods  of  experiment. 

Some  late  researches  by  Kellner  ^  seem  to  indicate,  how- 
ever, that  Pettenkofer  &  Yoit's  experiments  may  not  cover 
the  whole  ground.  In  none  of  the  experiments  hitherto 
described  was  the  work  continued  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time.  In  Yoit's  experiments  it  was  confined  to 
periods  of  ten  minutes  each,  and  in  those  of  Pettenkofer 
iSz  Yoit  it  was  continued  only  for  a  few  days  at  most,  and 
under  these  circumstances  caused  no  increase  in  the  protein 
consumption. 

Kellner's  experiments  were  made  at  the  Hohenheim 
Experiment  Station,  on  a  horse.  They  included  five 
periods  of  from  one  to  two  weeks  each,  during  each  of 

♦Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VIIL,  701. 


210  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

which  the  work  performed  per  day  was  the  same,  while 
the  amount  of  fodder  and  its  digestibihty  did  not  vary 
essentially  during  the  whole  series  of  experiments.  The 
work  performed  was  measured  by  a  dynamometer  con- 
structed for  the  purpose,  and  was  as  follows : 

Period  1 475,000  kilogramme-metreB.  * 

"      II 950,000 

"      III 1,425,000  " 

"      IV 950,000  " 

"      V 475,000 

The  digestibility  of  the  food  was  determined  directly. 
The  following  averages  were  obtained  for  the  daily  excre- 
tion of  nitrogen  and  the  total  volume  of  the  urine  during 
the  first  and  second  halves  and  the  whole  of  each  period : 


Nitrogen  in  Ukine. 

Volume  of  UBnrE. 

Nitrogen 

of  food.t 

Grms. 

Period. 

1st  half. 
Grma, 

2d  half. 
Grms. 

Whole. 
Grms. 

1st  half, 
c.c. 

2d  half, 
c.c. 

Whole, 
c.c. 

I 

.... 

.... 

99.0 

134.41 

.... 

.... 

6,730 

u...... 

107.6 

111.0 

109.3 

128.32 

6,482 

6,464 

6,473 

Ill 

113.2 

120.5 

116.8 

132.72 

7,773 

8,439 

8,106 

IV 

112.6 

107.7 

110.2 

120.40 

9,247 

8,129 

8,686 

V 

94.7 

101.9 

98.3 

129.41 

9,647 

9,447 

9,548 

These  results  show  that  "  an  increase  of  the  protein  con- 
sumption went  hand  in  hand  with  the  increase  of  the 
work ; "  but  whether  the  former  was  a  direct  result  of  the 


*  A  kilogramme-metre  is  the  amount  of  force  required  to  raise  a 
weight  of  one  kilogramme  through  the  space  of  one  metre,  in  opposi- 
tion to  gravity. 

f  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VIII.,  I.  Supp.,  p.  77. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  211 

latter  can  be  decided  only  after  a  careful  consideration  of 
all  the  factors  which  may  have  exerted  an  influence  upon 
the  protein  consumption. 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  an  in- 
creased excretion  of  water  in  the  urine  is  accompanied  by 
an  increased  excretion  of  nitrogen  also.  A  glance  at  the 
table  shows,  however,  that  in  these  experiments  the  volume 
of  the  urine  increased  constantly  from  one  period  to  an- 
other, and  therefore  cannot  well  have  been  the  cause  both 
of  an  increase  and  decrease  of  the  ureal  nitrogen. 

A  second  point  to  be  considered  is  the  effect  of  pro- 
longed work  in  altering  the  make-up  of  the  body,  especially 
as  regards  the  proportion  of  fat.  It  has  already  been 
pointed  out  that  muscular  exertion  causes  an  increased 
destruction  of  the  fat  of  the  body,  and  that  this  was  the 
case  in  these  experiments  is  shown  by  the  gradual  decrease 
of  the  weight  of  the  animal  during  the  first  four  periods, 
as  follows : 

Average  weight  in  Period  1 1,175  lbs. 

"     II 1,165    " 

"  "  "     III 1,150    " 

.     "  "  "     IV 1,119    " 

"  "  "     V 1,140    " 

Since,  as  shown  by  the  table,  the  nitrogen  excretion  was 
less  than  the  supply,  this  loss  of  weight  must  have  been 
caused  chiefly  by  a  destruction  of  fat  consequent  upon  the 
increased  work. 

But,  as  shown  in  Chapter  YI.,  the  body-fat  tends  to  di- 
minish the  protein  consumption,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
loss  of  fat  by  the  body  would  have  the  opposite  tendency ; 
and  we  have  therefore  to  consider  whether  the  variations 
in  the  protein  consumption  here  observed  can  be  explained 
in  tliis  way.     Obviously  the  increase  in  the  first  three  pe- 


212  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

riods  might  have  been  due  to  this  cause,  but  it  was  ob- 
served that  in  passing  from  Period  III.  to  Period  lY., 
and  from  this  to  Period  Y.,  the  amount  of  ureal  nitrogen 
sank  at  oiice  to  about  the  average  for  the  respective  periods. 

Thus,  in  the  last  four  days  of  Period  III.  the  average 
daily  excretion  of  nitrogen  was  124.4  grammes,  and  in  the 
first  four  days  of  Period  lY.,  104.8  grammes. 

It  is  easily  conceivable  that,  on  passing  from  a  period  of 
more  to  one  of  less  work,  fat  should  be  again  laid  up  in 
the  body  and  the  protein  consumption  thus  diminished, 
but  it  is  evident  that  such  an  effect  would  be  gradual,  and 
we  cannot  imagine  that  it  should  cause  any  such  sudden 
change  as  that  just  mentioned. 

We  are  consequently  shut  up  to  the  conclusion  that, 
under  the  conditions  of  these  experiments,  the  protein 
consumption  was,  greater  or  less  according  as  more  or  less 
work  was  performed,  and  it  would  thus  appear  that  while 
a  moderate  amount  of  work,  like  that  performed  in  Yoit's 
experiments,  does  not  sensibly  increase  the  protein  con- 
sumption in  the  body,  long-continued  exertion  may,  on 
the  contrary,  have  that  effect. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note,  in  this  connection,  some  experi- 
ments made  in  1SG7  by  T.  R.  Noyes,"^  then  a  student  in 
the  Yale  Medical  School. 

His  experiments  were,  in  the  main,  confirmatory  of 
Yoit's  results,  but  in  the  case  of  one  of  the  subjects,  in 
whom  the  muscular  exertion  produced  great  fatigue  and 
exhaustion,  an  increased  excretion  of  urinary  nitrogen  was 
observed  as  a  result  of  work,  and  the  author  suggests  as 
possible  that,  while  ordinary  work  does  not  increase  the 
destruction  of  protein,  exertion  sufficient  to  produce  ex- 

*Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  Oct.,  1867. 


MAKTTAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  213 

haustion  may  do  so.     This  conclusion  appears  to  be  in 
harmony  with  Kellner's  results. 


§  2.  The  Source  op  Muscular  Power. 

Thus  far  we  have  simply  been  considering  experimental 
results,  without  regard  to  the  conclusions  to  be  drawn 
from  them.  We  now  come  to  their  interpretation,  and 
here  it  must  be  admitted,  at  the  outset,  that  the  knowledge 
as  yet  gained  is  insufficient  to  enable  us  to  state  with  cer- 
tainty the  source  of  muscular  power. 

Any  elaborate  discussion  of  the  question  would  be  out 
of  place  here,  and  we  shall  simply  endeavor  to  present 
some  general  considerations  bearing  on  this  point,  and  to 
indicate  what  seem,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge, 
to  be  the  most  probable  conclusions. 

Increased  Oxidation  of  Source  of  Po-wer  not  ne- 
cessary.— At  first  thought  the  results  detailed  in  the  pre- 
ceding section  seem  to  plainly  indicate  the  non-nitroge- 
nous ingredients  of  the  body  as  the  source  of  muscular 
power,  since  these  undergo  an  increased  oxidation  during 
work,  while  the  protein  does  so  at  most  only  to  a  small  ex- 
tent, if  at  all ;  and  in  fact  many  eminent  physiologists  hold 
that  it  is  the  decomposition  of  these  bodies  which  supplies 
the  energy  for  the  production  of  work. 

But  this  is  by  no  means  a  necessary  conclusion.  We 
must  distinguish  between  the  source  and  the  consequence 
of  muscular  exertion.  The  continual  decomposition  of 
matter  which  goes  on  in  the  living  body  must  be  accom- 
panied by  the  liberation  of  a  corresponding  amount  of 
force.  Part  of  this  force  is  set  free  as  heat,  part  probably 
as  electricity,  continual  currents  of  which  circulate  in  the 
living  muscle.     Now  it  is  quite  conceivable  that,  in  mus- 


214  MANUAL   OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 

cular  exertion,  part  of  this  force  is  diverted  from  these 
channels,  and  takes  the  form  of  muscular  contraction, 
while  the  increase  in  the  oxidation  of  non-nitrogenous 
matter  is  a  consequence,  and  not  a  cause,  of  the  work. 

Yoit,  who  believes  the  albuminoids  to  be  the  proximate 
source  of  muscular  power,  advances  this  argimient,  and 
compares  the  constant  decomposition  of  protein  wliicli 
goes  on  in  the  body  to  the  constant  flow  of  water  in  a 
sti-eam.  A  mill  situated  by  the  stream  may  use  the  whole 
power  of  the  water,  a  half,  a  quarter,  or  any  desired  frac- 
tion, without  in  the  least  altering  the  amount  of  water 
running  past.  So,  according  to  him,  the  decomposition  of 
protein  in  the  body,  which  is  the  source  of  power  to  the 
muscles,  goes  on  constantly,  independenth^  of  whethei*  the 
energy  which  is  set  free  takes  the  form  of  motion  or  ap- 
pears in  some  other  shape. 

Pettenkofer  &  Yoit  (see  Chapter  YII.)  have  shown  it 
to  be  at  least  very  probable  that  protein  in  its  decomposi- 
tion in  the  body  takes  up  tlie  elements  of  water  and  splits 
up  into  urea  and  fat ;  and  it  has  been  shown  that  100 
parts  of  protein  might  produce  in  this  way  51.1:  parts  of 
fat.  This  process,  now,  takes  place  during  rest,  and  the 
supposition  is  quite  plausible  that  during  work  the  protein 
is  decomposed  completely  into  carbonic  acid,  water,  and 
urea,  and  that  thus  the  latent  energy  which  would  other- 
wise be  stored  up  in  the  fat  is  applied  to  the  production  of 
motion. 

It  is  plain,  however,  that  this  argument  maj'  be  used 
with  equal  force  to  show  that  the  non-nitrogenous  matters 
of  the  body  may  be  the  source  of  muscular  power. 

In  truth  these  considerations  simply  serve  to  show  that 
a  study  of  the  effects  of  work  cannot  give  us  decisive  in- 
formation as  to  its  source^  both  because  the  production  of 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  215 

muscular  exertion  does  not  necessarily  imply  an  increased 
decomposition  of  the  source  of  the  power  and  because 
secondary  effects  may  come  in  to  vitiate  our  conclusions. 
We  must,  then,  seek  for  further  evidence. 

Force  Value  of  Nutrients. — Much  valuable  evidence 
concerning  the  question  under  discussion  may  be  gained 
by  a  consideration  of  the  force  value  of  food,  and  the  ad- 
vocates of  the  non-nitrogenous  matter  as  the  source  of 
muscular  power  rely  largely,  in  support  of  their  views,  upon 
calculations  of  this  sort,  L  e.,  calculations  of  the  amount  of 
force  that  can  be  liberated  by  the  conversion  of  a  certain 
amount  of  albuminoids,  fat  or  carbhydrates  into  the  final 
products  of  their  oxidation  in  the  body,  viz.,  carbonic  acid, 
water  and  urea. 

The  basis  of  this  calculation  is  the  amount  of  heat  which 
the  several  nutrients  evolve  when  burned.  For  example  : 
one  gramme  of  albumin,  when  completely  burned,  evolves 
a  certain  definite  amount  of  heat ;  the  urea  from  one 
gramme  of  albumin  likewise  evolves  a  definite,  though 
smaller,  amount  when  burned.  Subtracting  the  latter 
from  the  former,  we  have  left  the  amount  of  heat  which 
would  be  produced  by  the  conversion  of  one  gramme  of 
albumin  into  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  urea,  and  this 
amount,  by  a  well-known  law  of  physics,  is  equivalent  to  a 
certain  fixed  amount  of  mechanical  motion  —  that  is, 
work. 

Having  once  obtained,  then,  accurate  data  as  to  the  heat 
of  combustion  of  each  substance  involved,  and  knowing 
the  amount  of  work  performed,  we  are  able  to  estimate 
whether,  in  a  given  case,  the  amount  of  any  substance  or 
class  of  substances  destroyed  during  the  experiment  is 
sufficient  to  set  free  the  amount  of  force  actually  exerted. 

The  earliest  and  best  known  experiment  of  this  sort  is 


216  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

that  made  by  Fick  &  Wislicenus,^  in  1866.  These  ob- 
servers found  that  in  the  ascent  of  an  Alpine  peak  (the 
Faulhorn)  the  amount  of  protein  decomposed,  as  measured 
by  the  urea  excreted,  was  not  sufficient,  according  to  their 
calculations,  to  yield  the  amount  of  force  actually  exerted 
in  raising  their  bodies  to  the  height  of  the  mountain,  al- 
though no  allowance  was  made  for  the  work  of  the  internal 
organs  or  for  those  muscular  exertions  which  did  not  con- 
tribute to  the  raising  of  their  bodies,  and  though  the  heat 
of  combustion  of  protein  was,  in  the  absence  of  positive 
data,  assumed  to  be  considerably  higher  than  it  was  after- 
w^ard  found  to  be  by  Frankland. 

Here  we  have  a  perfectly  definite  amount  of  work  per- 
foi-med  and  the  most  favorable  assumptions  made  on 
doubtful  points,  and  yet  we  have  a  considerable  deficit  of 
force,  if  the  albuminoids  alone  are  taken  into  account. 

At  the  time  when  Fick  &  Wislicenus  made  their  experi- 
ment no  data  as  to  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the  nutrients 
were  available ;  but  shortly  afterward  Frankland  f  took 
up  the  matter  and  made  a  large  number  of  experiments 
with  the  object  of  accurately  determining  these  important 
quantities.  His  results  have  served  as  the  basis  for  several 
calculations  similar  to  those  of  Fick  &  Wislicenus,  most, 
if  not  all,  of  which  have  led  to  the  same  conclusion  as  did 
theirs,  viz.,  that  the  observed  decomposition  of  protein 
was  insufficient  to  account  for  the  amount  of  force  actually 
exerted. 

These  results,  if  trustworthy,  show  that  at  least  a  por- 
tion of  the  force  exerted  in  muscular  work  must  be  con- 
tributed by  other  ingredients  of   the  food  than   protein. 


*  Phil.  Mag.,  XXXL,  485. 
flbid.,  XXXIL,  183. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING.  217 

No  calculations  seem  to  have  been  made  regarding  tlie  re- 
lations of  fat-consumption  and  work  in  this  respect. 

Unfortunately,  considerable  uncertainty  attaches  to  the 
very  foundation  on  which  all  of  these  results  rest,  viz.,  the 
heat  of  combustion  of  protein.  According  to  Yoit,  there 
is  good  reason  to  believe  that  in  Frankland's  experiments 
the  nitrogenous  substances,  especially,  w^ere  incompletely 
burned,  and  that  consequently  his  results  on  these  bodies 
were  too  low,  and  Zuntz"^  has  shown  it  to  be  at  least 
probable  that  the  heat  of  combustion  of  protein  as  deter- 
mined by  Frankland  should  be  increased  more  than  25  per 
cent.,  and  that  even  then  it  may  be  considerably  too  low. 
But  Frankland's  determinations  are  the  only  ones  of  this 
kind  that  we  yet  possess,  and  it  is  therefore  evident  that, 
until  these  are  either  proved  to  be  accurate  or  replaced  by 
others,  no  certain  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from  computa- 
tions of  the  force-value  of  food  as  to  the  production  of 
muscular  power,  although  such  results  as  have  been  ob- 
tained on  the  present  uncertain  basis  indicate  strongly  that 
the  non-nitrogenous  constituents  of  the  food  or  body  take 
part  in  the  process. 

It  may  be  added  here  that  the  increase  in  the  protein- 
consumption  observed  in  Kellner's  experiments  was  not 
suflScient  to  supply  the  extra  force  exerted  in  the  second 
and  third  periods,  even  if  the  lieat  of  combustion  of  pro- 
tein as  corrected  by  Zuntz  be  used  as  the  basis  of  the 
calculation. 

Conditions  of  Muscular  Exertion. — If  we  turn  from 
the  study  of  the  effects  of  muscular  exertion  to  that  of  its 
conditions,  we  shall  get  much  new  light,  and  be  helped  to 
a  more  rational  judgment  of  the  theories  as  to  its  source. 

*  Laudw,  Jahrbiicher,  VIII.,  73. 
10 


218  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Presupposing  the  existence  of  a  healthy  and  well -developed 
organism,  we  may  specify  four  conditions  as,  from  our 
point  of  view,  the  most  important : 

1.  The  facts  of  common  experience  appear  to  show  un- 
mistakably that  a  liberal  supply  of  protein  in  the  food  is 
one  of  the  conditions  of  any  sustained  muscular  exertion. 
Working  animals  must  receive  not  only  an  abundance  of 
food,  but  of  food  rich  in  protein,  and  the  more  severe  the 
work,  the  more  concentrated  must  be  the  food ;  and  the 
same  fact  is  equally  true  of  the  human  animal.  This, 
however,  does  not  necessitate  the  conclusion  that  the  pro- 
tein is  the  source  of  the  power  exerted  :  its  decomposition, 
as  we  have  seen,  goes  on  independently  of  muscular  exer- 
tion, and  may  be  regarded  as  simply  one  of  the  conditions 
of  the  healthy  activity  of  the  muscles  or  of  their  normal 
nutrition. 

2.  The  largely  increased  excretion  of  carbonic  acid  and 
water  during  work  indicates  a  necessity  for  a  liberal  supply 
also  of  the  non-nitrogenous  constituents  of  food.  At  need, 
however,  this  demand  may  be  supplied  by  the  albummoids 
or  perhaps  by  fat  already  formed  in  the  body. 

3.  An  essential  condition  of  continued  activity  of  the 
muscles  is  the  constant  removal  from  them  by  the  circula- 
tion of  the  carbonic  acid  and  other  chemical  products 
formed  during  contraction.  Certain  of  these  products, 
notably  lactic  acid  and  acid  potassium  phosphate,  if  allowed 
to  accumulate  in  the  muscle,  produce  the  sensation  of 
weariness  and  shortly  incapacitate  it  for  further  action.  If 
they  be  removed,  either  by  the  blood  or  by  injection  of  a 
weak  salt  solution,  the  muscle  is  again  capable  of  work ; 
while,  if  they  be  injected  into  a  fresh  muscle,  they  produce 
the  same  effect  as  if  naturally  formed  there.  The  same 
accumulation  of  w^aste  products  goes  on  in  the  muscle  after 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  219 

death,  and  the  rigo7'  mortis  is  calised  by  the  solidification 
of  the  jelly-like  imjosin^  which  is  also  one  of  the  substances 
formed  in  muscular  action. 

4.  A  most  important  condition  of  continued  nmscular 
activity  is  found  in  the  capacity  which  the  body  has  of 
storing  up  within  itself,  during  rest,  a  reserve  of  force,  to 
be  used  later  as  demands  are  made  upon  it. 

After  working  for  a  certain  time  we  experience  a  feeling 
of  fatigue,  or,  if  the  exertion  be  continued  long  enough,  of 
exhaustion,  and  require  a  period  of  rest  before  the  muscles 
are  capable  of  again  performing  work.  The  same  thing  is 
true  of  the  involuntary  muscles.  Even  those  which,  like 
the  heart  and  the  respiratory  muscles,  seem  to  work  con- 
tinually, really  have  relatively  long  intervals  of  rest  between 
each  exertion.  Thus,  the  heart  is  calculated  to  be  at  rest 
for  about  one-third  of  the  time.  Work  is  only  possible 
when  alternated  with  periods  of  rest ;  and  while  the  ner- 
vous system  has  undoubtedly  much  to  do  with  the  need  for 
rest,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  also  required  by  the  mus- 
cles, to  enable  them  to  repair  the  waste  occasioned  by 
work. 

This  well-known  fact  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  force 
of  muscular  exertion  is  not  produced  by  a  direct  combus- 
tion of  muscle  substance  by  means  of  the  oxygen  of  the 
blood,  as  coal  is  burned  under  a  boiler,  since,  if  this  were 
the  case,  there  would  be  no  reason  why  it  should  not  go 
on  indefinitely.  It  is  the  sudden  utilization  of  latent  en- 
ergy which  has  been  laid  up  during  rest. 

That  the  seat  of  this  latent  energy  is  in  the  muscles 
themselves  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  are  capable  of 
contraction  for  a  time  after  their  blood-supply  has  been 
cut  off,  or  even  after  their  removal  from  the  body.  A 
frog's  heart,  when  removed  from  the  body  and  freed  from 


220  MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

all  blood  by  injection  of  a  weak  solution  of  salt,  will  con- 
tinue to  beat  for  hours,  and  the  whole  animal,  under  the 
same  circumstances,  moves,  leaps,  and  behaves  in  short 
like  a  livino;  animal.  Ai>;assiz  relates  that  on  one  occasion 
he  captured  a  shark,  which  fought  as  long  and  fiercely  as 
is  usual  with  these  animals,  but  which,  when  finally  se- 
cui'ed,  was  found  to  have  its  gills  eaten  through  by  para- 
sites,  and  almost  all  its  blood  replaced  by  sea-water. 
(Liebig.) 

In  cases  like  these,  the  products  of  the  muscular  action 
being  continually  removed  by  the  salt  solution,  etc.,  the 
muscles  may  continue  active  until  their  store  of  force  is 
exhausted.  Like  a  bent  spring,  the  muscle  contains  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  potential  energy,  which  the  will  can  use  at 
pleasure  ;  but  when  the  supply  is  once  exhausted,  when  the 
spring  has  lost  its  tension,  a  fm'ther  supply  of  force  from 
without  is  necessary  before  more  work  can  be  performed. 

AVe  have  to  consider,  then,  in  what  manner  and  by 
means  of  what  substances  this  storing  up  of  energy  takes 
place. 

Storing  up  of  Oxygen. — It  would  appear  that  the 
storing  up  of  oxygen  in  the  body  which  has  been  shown 
by  Pettenkofer  &  Yoit  and  by  Ilenneberg  (see  pp.  85-87) 
to  take  place  under  certain  circumstances,  is  connected  with 
the  storing  up  of  energy. 

In  the  following  tables  are  given  the  amounts  of  car- 
bonic acid  excreted  and  of  oxygen  taken  up  in  two  of  Pet- 
tenkofer &  Yoit's  experiments  which  strikingly  illustrate 
this  point.  The  numbers  in  the  column  headed  "  E  "  are 
relative,  and  sliow  how  many  grammes  of  oxygen  appeared 
in  the  excreted  carbonic  acid  for  every  hundred  grannnes 
taken  up  from  the  atmosphere. 

These  experiments  are  included  in  the  averages  on  p.  207. 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


221 


Average  Diet— Rest. 


Carbonic  acid 

excreted. 

Grms. 

Oxygen  taken 

up. 

Grms. 

R. 

Cam  to  6  p.  m 

533 
379 

912 

235 

474 

709 

175 

6  P  xM   to  6  A.  M 

58 

6  A  M.  to  6  A  M 

94 

Average  Diet — Work. 


6  A.M    to  6  P  M 

884.6 
399.6 

1,284.2 

293.8 
660.1 

218 

6pm  to  6  a  m..                  

44 

6  A  M    to  6  A  M                               

953.9 

98 

It  will  be  observed  that  while  in  each  case  more  car- 
bonic acid  was  excreted  by  day  than  by  night,  the  larger 
amount  of  oxygen  was  taken  up  during  the  night.  More- 
over, the  numbers  in  the  last  column  show  that  at  least  a 
very  considerable  part  of  the  carbonic  acid  excreted  dur- 
ing the  day  must  have  been  formed  at  the  cost  of  oxygen 
already  present  in  the  body,  since  that  taken  up  from  the 
air  during  the  same  time  was  far  less  than  the  amount 
contained  ui  the  excreted  carbonic  acid. 

A  comparison  of  the  two  experiments  also  shows  that 
of  the  increase  of  the  carbonic  acid  excretion  caused  by 
work  (372.2  grammes),  by  far  the  larger  part  (351.6 
grammes)  occurred  during  the  hours  when  the  work  was 
performed,  while  the  oxygen  taken  up  during  the  same  time 
increased  only  58.8  grammes,  against  186.1  grammes  in  the 
following  night. 


..z:i  MANUAL    OJ-     rA'J"JLh-i- J-.iJjJNG. 

P'urtlier  experiinentB  bj  tlie  same  irjvefftigatorE,  while 
not  always  yielding  as  btriking  refrults  as  did  these  two, 
(MJiiiirmed  in  the  main  the  conclusions  drawn  from  them. 
It  was  found,  it  is  true,  that  the  storing  up  of  oxygen  did 
not  always  take  place  by  night,  as  in  these  experunents ; 
but  the  fact  tliat  oxygen  may  be  retained  in  the  body  in 
considerable  quantities  was  fully  established. 

One  other  iujp<^>rtant  jx^int  was  observed  m  Ilenneljerg's 
earlier  experiments  on  this  subject,  viz.,  that  the  greatest 
st-oring  up  of  oxygen  tf>^k  place  in  those  experiments  in 
which  the  fodder  was  richest  in  albuminoids. 

These  experunents  extended  over  only  twelve  hours, 
corresponding  to  the  "  day  "  half  of  Pettenkofer  <fc  Voit's 
experiments,  and  in  almost  ^\^r\  case  it  was  found  that 
the  carbonic  acid  excreted  cr»ntained  niore  oxygen  than 
was  taken  up  by  the  >>^jdy  during  the  same  time,  thus  show- 
ing a  formation  of  carbonic  acid  at  the  expense  of  oxygen 
previously  stored  up.  The  following  summary  of  the  re- 
Bults  shows  that  this  excess  of  oxygen  was,  in  general, 
greatest  in  those  cases  where  most  alVjuminoids  were  fed  : 


Kuinber 
«f  Experi- 
ment. 

Prutein  of  fod- 
der. 

Oxygen  taken 
up. 
Lbfi. 

Oxyiren  in  car- 
bonic acid.             Eatio  of  the  two. 

1 

0.79 

4  25 

5  42                  1 

1.28 

2 

o.e^ 

2  C3 

4.34                   1 

1.05 

3 

0 .  HO 

3  20 

4.00                   1 

1.45 

5 

o.%> 

3.83 

0.01                  1 

1.57 

6 

0.T8 

0.20 

0.07                   1 

1.28 

1. 

2.00 

3.  (XI 

7.13                   1 

2.38 

8 

2.01 

3.40 

7. 0^3                    1 

2  24 

MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  223 

This  alternate  ntoring  up  and  giving  off  of  oxygen  by 
the  body  has  also  been  observed  in  physiological  experi- 
ments of  an  entirely  different  character,  which  can  only  be 
alluded  to  here. 

That  the  storing  np  of  energy  is  connected  with  the 
storing  up  of  oxygen  is  indicated  by  a  few  experiments  l)y 
Pettenkofer  &  Voit  on  two  diseases  in  which  the  patient 
is  almost  incapable  of  nmscular  exertion,  viz.,  diabetes  and 
leukaemia.  In  these  experiments  the  total  excretion  and 
the  total  amount  of  food  wei-e  not  mucli  different  from 
those  in  health  ;  but  there  was  no  such  storing  up  of  oxy- 
gen as  in  the  healthy  organism,  and  there  was  also,  as  is 
usual  in  these  diseases,  an  almost  entire  lack  of  strength. 

But  Pettenkofer  ik  Voit's  and  Jlenneljerg's  results  are 
especially  valuable  for  oui*  present  purpose  because  they 
show  that  musculai-  power  does  not  have  its  origin  in  a 
simple  oxidation  but  in  the  "explosive"  decomposition, 
independently  of  oxygen,  of  mateiial  already  prepared  in 
the  muscle,  a  conclusion  to  which  we  are  also  led  by  the 
fact,  already  noted,  that  the  muscle  is  able  to  perfoim 
work  for  a  considerable  time  independently  of  oxygen, 
provided  the  resulting  decomposition  products  are  re- 
moved. 

Conclusions. — We  have  learned  in  the  foregoing  pages 
that,  presupposing  the  existence  of  a  healthy  and  well- 
nourished  organism,  muscular  exertion  is  possible  when 
the  chemical  products  of  the  action  are  removed  from  the 
muscles,  and  when  the  body  has  had  the  ability  and  op- 
portunity to  lay  up  a  store  of  latent  energy ;  that  this  stor- 
ing up  of  energy  is  effected  by  the  entrance  of  oxygen 
from  the  air  into  combination  with  the  organic  substances 
of  the  muscles ;  that  when  work  is  performed  this  oxygen 
reappears  in  combination  with  carbon  and  hydrogen  as  car- 


224  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

bonic  acid,  water,  and  otlier  products ;  that  this  process  re- 
sults in  an  increased  excretion  of  carbonic  acid  and  water, 
while  the  excretion  of  nitrogen  remains,  in  most  cases  at 
least,  unaltered  ;  and  finally,  that  the  amount  of  work  per- 
formed is  in  many  cases  greater  than  can  be  accounted  for 
by  the  amount  of  protein  which  the  m-inary  nitrogen  shows 
to  have  been  decomposed. 

All  these  facts  are  well  ascertained,  and  they  enable  us 
to  fi'ame  an  h^^othesis  which,  though  confessedly  but  a 
rough  and  approximate  one,  is  still  considered  by  many 
high  authorities  to  accord  more  closely  with  the  facts  of 
the  case  and  with  our  general  conceptions  of  vital  activity 
than  those  which  place  the  source  of  muscular  power  in 
protein  on  the  one  hand,  or  non-nitrogenous  matters  on 
the  other. 

This  h^^othesis  supposes  that  during  rest  some  of  the 
substances  of  the  muscle-cells  decompose  into  simpler  com- 
pounds, and  in  so  doing  set  free  their  latent  energy,  and 
that  this  energy,  instead  of  appearing  as  heat,  etc.,  is  used 
to  build  up  out  of  other  constituents  of  the  cell  a  still  more 
complex  compound,  containing  more  potential  energy  than 
its  components,  just  as  one  portion  of  society  may  acquire 
wealth  at  the  expense  of  another  portion  without  increas- 
ing the  total  wealth  of  the  comnnmity. 

The  sul)stances  which  are  thus  "  s}Tithesized "  are  pro- 
tein, non-nitrogenous  matter  from  the  blood,  and  oxygen. 
The  hypothetical  compound  thus  formed,  after  accumulat- 
ing to  a  certain  extent,  decomposes  during  rest  as  rapidly 
as  it  is  formed.  When  the  muscle  is  called  on  to  perform 
work,  however,  it  splits  up  rapidly,  yieldmg  carbonic  acid, 
Water,  and  otlier  non-nitrogenous  matters,  and  a  nitro- 
genous compound,  and  giving  forth  the  amount  of  force 
which  was  required  to  form  it.     The  non-nitrogenous  sub- 


MATTUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  225 

stances  wliicli  are  formed  are  supposed  to  be  rapidly  ex- 
creted, while  the  nitrogenous  product,  instead  of  undergo- 
ing furtlier  decomposition,  is  used  over  again  to  re-form 
the  hypothetical  substance. 

This  view  has  much  in  its  favor.  Various  syntheses, 
more  or  less  like  that  above  outlined,  are  known  to  take 
place  in  the  body ;  and,  moreover,  we  have  seen  that  all 
tlie  facts  seem  to  indicate  that  muscular  force  originates  in 
a  splitting  up  of  some  substance  in  the  muscle,  rather  than 
in  any  process  of  oxidation  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word. 

The  hypothesis  explains  the  object  of  the  storing  up  of 
oxygen  in  the  body  during  rest,  and  its  connection  with 
the  laying  up  of  a  reserve  of  force  :  the  oxygen  enters  into 
the  supposed  complex  compound  much  as  the  nitric-acid 
radicle  enters  into  nitro-glycerine  or  gun-cotton — it  is  held 
in  a  state  of  unstable  equilibrium,  ready  to  enter  into  new 
and  simpler  relations  with  its  neighboring  atoms  and  to 
set  free  the  force  by  which  it  was  placed  in  its  unstable 
position.  The  hypothesis  also  brings  that  necessity  for 
albuminoids  in  the  food  of  the  laboring  animal  which 
practical  experience  has  shown  to  exist,  into  harmony  with 
the  fact  that  there  is  no  greater  excretion  of  nitrogen  dur- 
ing work  than  during  rest.  Furthermore,  it  shows  why 
w^e  need  rest  after  work.  In  the  first  place,  the  circula- 
tion must  have  an  opportunity  to  remove  those  waste 
products  which  accumulate  in  the  working  muscle  faster 
than  they  can  be  carried  off,  and  in  the  second  place  a 
fresh  supply  of  force  must  be  stored  up  in  the  way  des- 
cribed before  it  is  ready  to  be  used  at  the  command  of  the 
will. 

Finally  the  assumption  of  a  complex  "  contractile  mate- 
rial" is  in  harmony  with  the  results  obtained  by  Fick  & 
10* 


226  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Wisliceniis  and  otliers  regarding  the  force  value  of  the 
nutrients,  since  it  does  not  place  the  source  of  muscular 
power  in  the  albuminoids  alone  but  in  the  joint  action  of 
these  and  of  non-nitrogenoiis  mattei-s. 

It  is  possible  that  Kellner's  results,  if  confirmed  bj 
further  investigation,  may  modify  this  hypothesis  some- 
what. They  at  least  suggest  that  when,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  protracted  work,  the  reserve  of  '^contractile  mate- 
rial "  runs  low,  the  protein  of  the  muscle  may  be  used  to 
supply  the  deficiency. 

In  any  case,  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  hypothe- 
sis is  only  a  provisional  one.  Much  work  remains  to  be 
done  before  we  can  have  a  full  understanding  of  this  im- 
portant subject,  and  the  chief  value  of  such  an  hypothesis 
as  this  is  to  co-ordinate  and  arrange  our  knowledge,  and 
serve  as  the  basis  for  further  research. 


§  3.  Internal  Work. 

In  the  two  previous  sections  we  have  been  considering 
one  particular  form  of  work,  viz.,  muscular  exertion. 

As  pointed  out  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter,  there 
are  other  forms  of  work  wdiich,  though  less  obvious,  are 
of  equal  or  even  greater  importance,  and  we  now  turn  our 
attention  to  these,  grouping  them  under  the  convenient,  if 
not  strictly  accurate,  name  of  internal  work. 

The  internal  work  of  the  body  may  be  of  three  princi- 
pal kinds :  muscular  work  of  the  internal  organs,  produc- 
tion of  heat,  and  of  chemical  changes. 

Muscular  Work  of  Internal  Organs. — The  activity 
of  many  of  the  most  important  internal  organs  involves 
considerable  muscular  action,  e.  g.,  in  the  heart,  the  respi- 
ratory muscles,  and  the  digestive  apparatus.      Of  these, 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


227 


the  work  of  the  two  former  is  tolerably  constant,  and 
makes  pretty  uniform  demands  on  the  latent  energy  sup- 
plied by  the  food,  while  the  labor  performed  by  the  di- 
gestive apparatus  is  more  vai'iable,  being  relatively  greater 
with  a  bulky  than  with  a  concentrated  fodder,  and  is  like- 
wise greater  at  or  near  the  time  of  feeding  than  at  other 
times. 

Henneberg's  Experiments. — We  have  already  learned 
that  muscular  exertion  increases  the  excretion  of  carbonic 
acid,  but  not  notably  that  of  urea.  Henneberg  *  has  shown 
that  the  same  is  true  of  the  work  of  the  digestive  organs, 
so  far,  at  least,  as  the  excretion  of  carbonic  acid  is  con- 
cerned.- 

In  one  series  of  respiration  experiments  on  sheep  the 
animals  were  fed  chiefly  during  the  day,  while  in  a  second 
series  they  received  most  of  their  fodder  in  the  night. 
The  numbers  in  the  following  table  give  in  grammes  per 
day  the  results  obtained  on  two  sheep  taken  together : 

Feeding  chiefly  by  Day. 


Number  of  Experi- 

Fodder (Hay). 

Cabbonic  Acid. 

Of  100  Parts 
Carbonic  Acid. 

ment. 

Day. 
Grms. 

Night. 
Grms. 

Day. 
Grms. 

Night. 
Grms. 

Day. 
Per  cent. 

Night. 
Per  cent. 

1  and2 

1,809 
1,824 
1,736 

624 

684 
723 

877 
777 
864 

756 
691 
715 

54 
53 
55 

46 

3  and  4 

47 

5  and  6. 

45 

Average 

1,790 

677 

839 

721 

54 

46 

*  Neue  Beitrage,  etc.  1871,  p.  157. 


228 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Feeding  chiefly  by  Night. 


Number  of  Experi- 

FODDEB 

(Hay). 

Carbon 

[c  Acid. 

Of  100  Parts 
Carbonic  Acid. 

ment. 

Day 
Grms. 

Night 
Grms. 

Day 
Grms. 

Night 
Grms. 

Day. 
Per  Cent. 

Night 
Per  Cent. 

1  and2 

590 
653 
586 

1,685 
1,588 
1,499 

719 
706 
693 

806 

842 
815 

47 
46 
46 

53 

3  and  4 

54 

5  and  6 

54 

Average 

610 

1,591 

706 

821 

46 

54 

The  increased  work  caused  by  the  feeding  by  day  in 
one  case,  and  by  night  in  the  other,  resulted  immediately  in 
an  increased  excretion  of  carbonic  acid. 

It  is  probable  that  the  difference  observed  in  these  ex- 
periments is  chiefly  the  expression  of  the  amount  of  work 
involved  in  chewing  and  rumination,  since  the  alimentary 
canal  always  contains  more  or  less  fodder ;  but  at  the 
same  time  it  gives  us  a  useful  hint  of  the  amount  of 
work  required  in  the  digestion  of  the  bulky  fodder  of 
herbivorous  animals. 

Saving  of  Work  by  Concentrated  Fodder. — A  cer- 
tain amount  of  work  by  the  digestive  organs  is,  of  course, 
necessary  and  unavoidable,  but  it  is  evident  that  the  amount 
of  this  work  will  be  reduced  by  the  use  of  as  concentrated 
fodder  as  possible. 

That  is,  the  less  the  proportion  of  indigestible  matters 
contained  in  a  fodder,  the  less  of  the  fodder  will  have  to 
be  eaten  and  worked  over  by  the  animal  in  order  that  it 
may  obtain  the  amounts  of  the  several  nutrients  which  it 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  229 

requires.  If  we  could  eliminate  the  indigestible  matters 
entirely  from  the  fodder  of  an  animal,  we  should  effect 
the  greatest  possible  economy  of  work  by  the  digestive 
organs,  and  could  produce  an  equal  nutritive  effect  with 
a  correspondingly  smaller  amount  of  digestible  nutrients, 
since,  as  explained  on  p.  203,  the  production  of  work  of 
any  kind  implies  a  destruction  of  the  constituents  of  the 
body,  which  loss  must  finally  be  supplied  by  the  food. 
Such  an  extreme  case  is  purely  suppositious,  but  obviously, 
the  nearer  we  approach  to  it  by  the  use  of  fodders  contain- 
ing a  large  proportion  of  digestible  matter,  the  greater  will 
be  the  saving  of  work,  although  we  have  no  accurate  data 
regarding  the  amount  of  the  saving  which  could  thus  be 
made.  In  Miller's  system  of  exclusive  meal-feeding,  it  is 
probable  that  a  portion,  at  least,  of  the  saving  in  fodder 
is  due  to  the  less  amount  of  work  imposed  on  the  digestive 
organs. 

In  practice,  however,  considerations  of  profit  come  in  to 
modify  the  conclusions  just  drawn. 

As  a  general  rule,  a  given  number  of  pounds  of  digestible 
matter  can  be  had  more  cheaply  in  the  form  of  coarse  fod- 
der, such  as  hay,  straw,  etc.,  than  in  the  more  concentrated 
fodders,  like  the  grains,  which  contains  less  indigestible  mat- 
ter. Moreover,  ruminating  animals  are  adapted  by  nature 
to  extract  the  nutritive  matters  from  coarse  fodder  as  com- 
pletely as  possible,  so  that  it  is  obvious  that  under  some 
circumstances  it  may  be  more  profitable  to  feed  almost 
exclusively  coarse  fodder  (in  wintering  stock,  for  example), 
while  in  other  cases,  e.  g.,  fattening,  where  a  rapid  produc- 
tion is  desired,  the  greater  cost  of  concentrated  fodders  may 
be  more  than  covered  by  the  economy  of  digestive  labor 
and  the  consequent  saving  of  material  which  they  cause. 

Pkoduction  of  Heat.— The  continual  chemical  changes 


230  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

going  on  in  the  body,  like  similar  changes  outside  the 
body,  give  rise  to  a  liberation  of  heat.  Indeed,  all  the 
force  conveyed  to  the  body  by  the  food  leaves  it  either  as 
motion  or  heat,  all  the  actions  of  the  internal  organs,  all 
the  molecular  labor  of  the  nervous  and  other  tissues,  etc., 
being  finally  converted  into  heat.  It  has  been  estimated 
by  eminent  authorities  that,  in  man,  of  the  total  energy 
represented  by  the  food,  from  four-fifths  to  five-sixths 
takes  the  form  of  heat.  This  production  of  heat,  of  course, 
implies  a  corresponding  consumption  of  food-material, 
just  as  the  production  of  heat  in  a  stove  implies  the  con- 
sumption of  fuel ;  so  that  it  is  evident  that  any  change  in 
the  amount  of  heat  set  free  has  a  direct  effect  on  the  de- 
mands of  the  body  for  food  and  on  the  results  of  feeding. 

Vital  Heat. — The  bodies  of  warm-blooded  animals 
(birds  and  mammals)  maintain  a  very  constant  temperature 
at  all  times,  in  spite  of  great  variations  in  the  temperature 
of  their  surroundings.  The  production  of  mtal  heat,  as  it 
is  called,  by  the  oxidation  of  food-elements,  and  the  losses  of 
it  to  which  the  body  is  subject,  are  so  balanced  as  to  result 
in  keeping  the  temperature  of  the  body  at  from  95°  to 
104°  F.,  a  variation  of  more  than  a  degree  or  two  from  the 
normal  temperature  of  an  animal  indicating  serious  dis- 
turbance of  the  organism. 

This  regulation  of  the  vital  heat  appears  to  be  effected 
in  two  ways :  first,  by  variations  in  the  loss,  and  second, 
by  variations  in  the  production.  The  chief  sources  of  loss 
of  heat  by  the  body  are : 

1.  Conduction  and  Ttadiation  from  the  Skin. 

2.  Evaporation  of  Water  from  the  Skin  and  Lungs. 

3.  Warming  of  the  Ingesta  (Food  and  Drink). 

These  we  will  take  up  in  tlieir  order  and  consider  how 
in  each  case  the  balance  of  the  vital  heat  is  kept  up. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  231 

Conduction  and  Radiation  from  the  Skin. — This  is 
one  of  the  principal  sources  of  loss  of  heat  by  the  body,  and 
also  the  one  which  is  most  susceptible  to  regulation.  Henne- 
berg,^  in  his  respiration  experiments  on  sheep,  already 
cited,  estimates  that  the  total  amount  of  heat  produced  by 
the  animals  experimented  on  was  applied  as  follows : 

To  warming  the  ingesta 4. 0  per  cent. 

"         "•  "    inspired  air 4.2         " 

' '  evaporation  of  water 26.7         '* 

"  supply  loss  by  radiation,  etc C5.1         " 

Experiments  on  man  hav^e  given  very  similar  results. 

Plainly,  the  greater  the  amount  of  blood  passing  through 
the  vessels  of  the  skin,  the  more  heat  will  be  lost,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  diminution  in  the  current  of  blood 
will  check  the  loss  of  heat. 

Kow  when  the  skin  is  exposed  to  cold,  as,  for  example, 
to  cold  air  or  to  the  water  of  a  cold  bath,  the  capillaries  of 
the  skin  are  contracted  and  the  blood-vessels  of  the  vis- 
cera expanded,  thus  diverting  a  portion  of  the  blood  from 
the  former  to  the  latter  and  sometimes  causing  a  rise  of 
temperature  in  the  interior  of  the  body. 

Conversely,  under  the  influence  of  warmth  the  capillaries 
of  the  skin  dilate,  admitting  more  blood,  and  thus  effecting 
a  cooling  of  the  latter.  To  this  is  to  be  added  the  loss  of 
heat  by  the  evaporation  of  the  perspiration,  to  which  atten- 
tion will  be  called  on  subsequent  pages. 

In  this  manner  the  loss  of  heat  from  the  surface  of  the 
body  is  regulated  in  accordance  with  the  external  tem- 
perature, but  there  are  numerous  experiments  which  show 
that  under  such  circumstances  the  'production  of  heat 
also  varies,  though  we  have  but  little  knowledge  of  the 

*  Neue  Beitrage,  etc.,  1871,  p.  227. 


232 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


means  by  wliicli  these  variations  are  effected.  It  Las 
been  sliown  by  numerous  observations  on  rabbits,  guinea- 
pigs,  and  cats  that,  in  warm-blooded  animals,  exposure  to 
cold  largely  increases  both  the  consumption  of  oxygen  and 
the  excretion  of  carbonic  acid,  thus  showing  a  greater 
activity  of  the  chemical  processes  in  the  body  and  pre- 
sumably an  increased  production  of  heat,  while  warmth,  on 
the  other  hand,  has  the  converse  effect,  diminishing  the 
amount  of  chemical  change  in  the  body. 

The  following  selection  from  the  results  obtained  by 
Theodor  ^  in  an  extensive  series  of  experiments  on  a  cat 
will  serve  to  illustrate  these  facts.  Each  experiment  lasted 
six  hours. 


Temperature. 
Deg.  Cent. 

Carbonic 

acid 

excreted. 

G-rms. 

Oxygen 

taken  up. 

Grms. 

Temperature. 
Deg.  Cent. 

Carbonic 

acid 

excreted. 

Grms. 

Oxygen 

taken  up. 

Grms. 

-5.5 

19.83 

17.48 

-hl2.3 

17.63 

17.71 

-3.0 

18.42 

18.26 

+  16.3 

15.73 

14.74 

+0.2 

18.24 

19.95 

+20.1 

14.34 

12.78 

-i-5.0 

17.90 

14.82 

+  29.6 

13.12 

10.87 

In  some  of  these  experiments  considerable  motion  on 
the  part  of  the  animal  took  place,  which  may  have  influ- 
enced the  result,  and  Yoit  f  therefore  executed  a  series  of 
similar  experiments  on  a  man.  The  man  weighed  about 
156  lbs.,  and,  after  having  been  exposed  for  some  time  to 
the  temperature  whose  effect  was  to  be  observed,  passed 
six  hours  in  the  respiration  apparatus  fasting  and  in  com- 
plete rest.  In  this  time  he  excreted  the  following  quanti- 
ties of  carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen : 

♦  Zeit.  f.  Biologic,  XIV.,  51. 
f  Ibid.,  XIV.,  57. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


233 


Temperature. 
Deg.  Cent. 

Carbonic 
acid. 
Grms. 

Ureal 

nitrogen. 

Grms. 

Temperature. 
Deg.  Cent. 

Carbonic 
acid. 
Grms. 

Ureal 

nitrogen. 

Grms. 

4.4 

210.7 
206.0 
192.0 
155.1 
158.3 

4.23 
4.05 
4.20 
3.81 
4.00 

23.7 

24.2 

26.7 

30.0 

164.8 
166.5 
160.0 
170.6 

3.40 

6.5 

3.34 

9.0 

3.97 

14.3 

16.2 

The  increased  excretion  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  cold  as 
compared  with  an  ordinary  temperature  of  14°  to  15°  C. 
(about  60°  F.)  is  as  marked  in  these  experiments  as  in  the 
preceding  ones,  but  above  that  temperature  a  slightly  in- 
creased excretion  was  observed.  The  excretion  of  nitrogen 
is  seen  to  vary  in  the  same  way,  though  to  a  small  extent, 
indicating  an  increased  protein  consumption  as  a  result  of 
exposure  to  a  low  temperature. 

These  results  show  plainly  how  great  an  influence  the 
temperature  of  its  surroundings  may  have  on  the  amount 
of  fodder  required  by  animals,  and  confirm  the  conclusion 
drawn  from  many  practical  experiments,  that  it  is  desirable 
to  protect  animals  from  extreme  cold. 

In  conclusion,  it  should  be  said  that  the  action  of  a  low 
temperature  of  the  surrounding  medium  appears  to  be,  in 
the  first  place,  on  the  nerves,  and  that  only  through  them 
does  it  cause  a  greater  activity  of  the  chemical  processes  in 
the  body  and  an  increased  production  of  heat. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Pfliiger  that  when  this  action  of 
the  nerves  is  hindered,  the  activity  of  chemical  change  in 
the  body  is  increased  by  heat  and  decreased  by  cold,  just 
as  many  chemical  processes  outside  the  body  are,  and  as  is 
the  case  normally  in  cold-blooded  animals. 


234  MATs^UAL    OB^    CATTLl>FKP:i)ING. 

Evaporation  of  Water. — An  important  regulator  of 
the  temperature  of  the  body  is  the  evaporation  of  water, 
especially  from  the  skin. 

In  the  conversion  of  any  liquid  into  vapor,  a  very  con- 
siderable amount  of  heat  is  absorbed,  and  becomes  late7it 
in  the  vapor.  This  absorption  of  heat  during  vaporization 
may  be  rendered  evident  to  the  senses  by  wetting  the  hand 
with  some  volatile  liquid,  such  as  alcohol  or  ether,  and 
moving  it  through  the  air  to  hasten  evaporation.  In  the 
same  way,  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the  skin,  which 
is  constantly  going  on,  cools  the  latter ;  and  though  the 
effect  is  less  noticeable  than  with  a  more  volatile  liquid,  on 
accoimt  of  the  greater  slowness  of  the  evaporation,  the 
total  amount  of  heat  thus  abstracted  from  the  body  is  very 
considerable,  amounting,  according  to  Henneberg  (p.  231), 
in  the  case  of  sheep,  to  nearly  27  per  cent,  of  the  total  loss 
of  heat. 

The  conversion  of  one  gramme  of  water  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  body  into  vapor  of  the  same  temperature 
requires  580  heat  units,  an  amount  equal  to  that  produced 
by  the  combustion  of  0.148  grammes  of  organic  matter 
having  the  composition  of  starch,  and  corresponding  to  an 
excretion  of  0.241  grammes  of  carbonic  acid.  In  the  ex- 
periments by  Henneberg  just  mentioned,  the  average  daily 
excretion  of  water  from  lungs  and  skin  was  881.7  grammes, 
which,  according  to  the  above  figures,  required  for  its 
evaporation  as  much  heat  as  would  be  produced  by  the 
combustion  of  130.5  grannnes  of  starch,  while  the  average 
amount  of  carbhydrates  digested  per  day  was  464.3 
grammes.  Consequently,  if  the  loss  of  heat  by  evapora- 
tion was  supplied  by  the  combustion  of  these  substances, 
about  28  per  cent,  of  them  was  thus  consumed. 

Such  results  as  this,  of  which  many  might  be  cited,  show 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEJJIJSG. 


235 


US  plainly  both  the  importance  of  the  process  of  evapora- 
tion as  a  regulator  of  the  vital  heat,  and  the  great  waste  of 
fodder  that  may  be  caused  by  an  undue  increase  in  the 
perspiration. 

The  regulation  of  the  temperature  of  the  body  by  the 
perspiration,  especially  the  sensible  perspiration  (sweat),  is 
too  familiar  to  require  more  than  a  simple  mention  ;  but 
the  effect  of  increased  perspiration  in  augmenting  the  ex- 
cretion of  carbonic  acid  is  of  greater  importance  for  our 
present  purpose.  This  effect  is  shown  in  these  same  ex- 
periments by  Ilenneberg. 

In  the  following  table  his  results  are  arranged  according 
to  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  excreted.  The  numbers 
refer  to  the  two  animals  taken  tog-ether : 


Tempera- 
ture of  stall. 
Deg.  Cent. 

Hay  fed. 
Grms. 

Water  drunk. 
Grms. 

Carbonic  acid 

excreted. 

Grms. 

Water 

evaporated. 

Grms. 

Urinary  nitro- 
gen. 
Grms. 

9.3 

12.7 

14.1 

13.6 

13.7 

13.7 

2,508 
2,085 
2,275 
2,241 
2,459 
2,443 

2,757 

(?) 
3,193 

(?) 

3,038 
3,876 

1,468 
1,508 
1,525 
1,548 
1,579 
1,633 

1,268 
1,578 
1,601 
1,680 
1,750 
1,650 

14.81 
15.42 
16.91 
15.59 
15.56 
16.02 

It  is  evident  at  once  that  in  every  case  but  the  last  an 
increased  evaporation  of  water  and  an  increased  excretion 
of  carbonic  acid  accompany  each  other ;  but  whether  the 
latter  is  a  result  of  the  former  can  be  determined  only 
after  the  possible  influence  of  all  the  other  factors  which 
influence  the  excretion  of  carbonic  acid  has  been  consid- 


236  MANUAL   OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 

ered.  These  are,  in  this  case,  the  amount  of  food,  the 
amount  of  water  drunk,  and  the  temperature. 

That  the  amount  of  food  has  an  important  influence  on 
tlie  amount  of  carbonic  acid  excreted  is  a  well-estabKshed 
fact,  and  is  well  illustrated  by  a  seventh  experiment  on  the 
same  two  sheep,  in  which  all  food  was  withheld  for  a  single 
day.  The  carbonic  acid  excretion  sank  at  once  to  837 
grammes,  or  scarcely  more  than  half  that  previously  ob- 
served. 

In  these  six  experiments,  however,  although  the  amount 
of  fodder  eaten  varied  somewhat,  no  connection  can  be 
traced  between  its  amount  and  that  of  the  carbonic  acid. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  amount  of  water  drunk,  while 
the  lowest  temperature  {i.e.,  the  one  which  should  cause 
the  greatest  activity  of  the  oxidations  in  the  body)  coin- 
cides with  the  minimum  of  carbonic  acid. 

We  must  therefore  conclude  that  there  is  a  connection 
between  the  carbonic  acid  excretion  and  the  evaporation 
of  water,  and  that  an  increased  evaporation  causes  more 
material  to  be  oxidized  in  the  body,  in  order  to  make  good 
the  resulting  loss  of  heat. 

Henneberg's  experiments  are  the  only  ones  which  we 
yet  possess  on  this  important  subject,  but  they  suffice  to 
show  its  practical  importance  and  the  desirability  of  fur- 
ther experiments  in  the  same  direction. 

A  direct  influence  of  the  amount  of  water  evaporated 
upon  the  protein  consumption  does  not  seem  to  be  indi- 
cated by  these  experiments. 

Warming  Ingesta. — A  considerable  quantity  of  heat 
(according  to  Henneberg,  about  4  per  cent.)  is  consumed  in 
raising  the  food  and  drink  of  an  animal  to  the  temperature 
of  its  body.  Of  this  amount,  by  far  the  larger  part  is 
used  in  warming  the  water  of  the  ingesta,  both  on  account 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  237 

of  its  large  amount  and  because  a  greater  quantity  of  heat 
is  required  to  increase  the  tempqrature  of  a  pound  of  water 
one  degree  than  is  sufficient  to  effect  the  same  change  in  a 
poimd  of  any  other  substance. 

The  effect  of  excessive  drinking  on  the  production  of 
flesh  and  fat  has  ah-eady  been  mentioned  in  the  two  pre- 
ceding chapters,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  a  part, 
at  least,  of  this  effect  is  due  to  the  demand  for  heat  thus 
made  on  the  system. 

The  last  line  of  the  table  on  p.  235  affords  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  influence  of  the  amount  of  water  drunk  on  the 
excretion  of  carbonic  acid.  Although  the  quantity  of 
water  evaporated  is  less  than  in  the  two  preceding  cases, 
more  carbonic  acid  is  excreted,  evidently  on  account  of  the 
considerably  larger  amount  of  water  drunk.  It  is  notice- 
able that  the  urinary  nitrogen  in  this  experiment  is  also 
more  than  in  most  of  the  others. 

Further  examples  of  the  influence  of  the  quantity  of 
water  drunk  upon  the  decomposition  of  matter  in  the 
organism  might  be  given,  but  the  few  results  which  have 
as  yet  been  reached  in  this  direction,  while  they  afford  im- 
portant practical  hints,  are  still  so  meagre  that  no  very  ex- 
tended conclusions  can  be  based  on  them. 

Practical  Conclusions.— In  the  foregoing  pages  we 
have  seen  that  the  production  of  heat  makes  large  demands 
on  the  food  supply  of  an  animal,  and  that  various  circum- 
stances may  influence  the  amount  of  heat  produced  and 
thus  effect  an  economy  or  a  waste  of  fodder.  There  re- 
mains to  be  considered  the  practical  application  of  these 
facts  to  the  feeding  and  care  of  cattle. 

Temperature  of  Stable. — It  is  evident  that  the  warmer 
the  air  of  the  stable  is  kept  the  less  heat  the  animals  will 
lose  by  radiation,  and  consequently  the  greater  wiU  be  the 


238  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

saving  of  fodder  effected.  If  this  were  the  only  circum- 
stance to  be  considered,  tliQ  greatest  economy  would  result 
from  keeping  the  surroundings  of  the  animal  at  the  same 
temperature  as  its  body,  for  then  no  heat  would  be  lost  by 
radiation. 

A  high  temperature,  however,  tends  to  increase  the  per- 
spiration, which,  as  we  have  learned,  demands  considerable 
heat  for  its  evaporation ;  so  that  the  saving  effected  by  the 
diminished  radiation  consequent  on  a  high  temperature 
may  be  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  loss  due  to  the 
greater  amount  of  perspiration  evaporated.  To  this  is  to 
be  added  the  fact  that  the  animals  are  also  led  to  drink 
more  water,  thus  still  further  increasing,  or  tending  to  in- 
crease, the  consumption  both  of  protein  and  fat  in  the 
body. 

It  thus  becomes  evident  that  the  most  favorable  balance 
between  these  two  opposing  factors,  and  consequently  the 
most  economical  production,  may  take  place  at  a  medium 
temperature,  and  this  conclusion  is  one  which  accords  with 
the  general  experience  of  farmers. 

That  the  least  expenditure  of  material  by  the  body  takes 
place  at  a  medium  temperature  is  very  clearly  shown  by 
Yoit's  experiments,  cited  on  p.  233. 

Finally,  the  question  of  profit  comes  in.  Warming  the 
stable  in  winter  involves  a  certain  amount  of  expense; 
leaving  it  cold  also  involves  a  certain  amount  of  expense, 
viz.,  the  cost  of  the  excess  of  fodder  required  by  the  ani- 
mals. It  is  a  question  to  be  settled  by  the  circumstances 
of  each  particular  case  which  method  of  procedure  is,  on 
the  whole,  more  profitable. 

Amount  of  Drbik. — As  already  pointed  out,  excessive 
drinking  tends  to  increase  the  consumption  of  matter  in 
the  animal  body,  and  thus  to  decrease  the  profits  of  the 


MANUAL    OF    OATTLE-FEEDING.  239 

feeding.  It  therefore  becomes  the  interest  of  tlie  feeder 
to  restrict  the  amount  of  water  drunk  by  his  animals  to 
that  required  for  health.  This  is  estimated  by  Wolff  at 
four  pounds  per  pound  of  dry  matter  of  the  fodder  for 
cattle,,  and  two  pounds  for  sheep,  this  amount  including 
that  present  in  the  fodder.  The  more  watery  the  fodder 
the  less  drink  is  necessary. 

Naturally,  the  amount  of  water  drunk  will,  in  most 
cases,  be  left  to  the  instinct  of  the  animal,  and  regulated 
only  by  avoidance  of  those  conditions  which,  like  too  large 
rations  of  salt,  too  high  temperature  of  the  stable,  etc.,  in- 
crease the  desire  of  the  animals  to  drink. 

Finally,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  would  be  advantageous, 
when  practicable,  to  supply  animals  with  water  warmed  at 
least  somewhat  above  the  freezing  temperature,  since  it 
would  seem  that  at  least  one  chief  object  of  the  increased 
protein  and  fat  consumption  caused  by  excessive  drinking 
is  to  produce  heat  to  warm  the  water  to  the  temperature 
of  the  body. 

Still  more  is  it  desirable,  in  the  wintering  of  stock,  not 
to  compel  them  to  satisfy  their  thirst  with  snow  or  ice, 
since  not  only  must  these  be  warmed,  but  they  must  be 
melted^  and  the  conversion  of  one  pound  of  ice  at  32°  F. 
into  water  of  the  same  temperature  requires  somewhat 
less  than  twice  the  amount  of  heat  needed  to  warm  one 
pound  of  water  from  32°  to  the  temperature  of  the  body. 
All  this  heat  comes  directly  from  the  combustion  of  tissue, 
and  is  just  so  much  subtracted  from  the  net  results  of 
feeding,  and  consequently  from  the  feeder's  pocket. 

Cooking  Fodder.  —A  portion  of  the  advantage  frequently 
claimed  to  result  from  cooking  and  steaming  fodder  un- 
doubtedly arises  from  the  fact  that  the  fodder  is  eaten 
while  still  warm,  and  that  thus  a  certain  amount  of  the  sub- 


240  MANUAL    OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

stance  of  the  animal,  which  would  otherwise  be  burned  in 
warming  the  food,  is  rendered  available  for  other  purposes. 
This  fact,  in  connection  with  the  increased  palatability  of 
the  fodder  and  the  consequently  greater  consumption  of 
it,  probably  explains  the  favorable  results  frequently  ob- 
tained by  means  of  this  practice,  and  at  the  same  time 
renders  it  evident  that  its  profitableness  must  depend  on 
circumstances.  Under  some  conditions,  the  gain  thus 
effected  might  repay  the  expense,  while  imder  other  con- 
ditions it  might  be  more  economical  to  let  the  cattle  warm 
their  own  food. 

Production  of  Chemical  Changes. — The  food  being, 
as  already  explained,  the  means  by  which  supplies  of  force 
are  introduced  into  the  body,  it  is  evident  that  any  change 
taking  place  in  the  constituents  of  the  food  before  they 
become  part  of  the  body  by  which  any  of  the  force  which 
they  contain  is  liberated,  involves  an  equivalent  loss  to 
the  organism.  It  is  as  if  the  fuel  which  is  to  drive  the 
engine  were  partially  burned  before  being  put  under  the 
boiler. 

Such  changes  actually  take  place  in  the  food  to  some  ex- 
tent during  digestion.  For  example,  we  have  all  along 
assumed  that  the  carbhydrates  yield  grape-sugar  in  the 
alimentary  canal,  and  all  calculations  of  rations  are  based 
on  that  assumption.  In  the  main  it  is  probably  correct ; 
but  it  is  kno^Ti  that  portions  of  these  bodies  suffer  still 
farther  decomposition  and  yield  lactic  acid.  In  this  pro- 
cess some  of  the  latent  force  of  the  carbhydrates  appears 
as  heat,  and  the  resulting  lactic  acid  and  other  products 
are  less  valuable  to  the  body  by  just  the  amount  of  force 
thus  liberated. 

It  was  stated  on  page  T)-!-,  that  many  good  authorities  con- 
sider that  the  digestion  of  cellulose  consists  essentially  in 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  241 

a  kind  of  fermentation.  Little  is  known  of  this  process, 
but  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  small  quantities  of  marsh- 
gas  and  hydrogen  exhaled  bj  ruminants  have  their  source 
in  it,  and  this  fact  indicates  that  a  considerable  part  of  the 
latent  energy  of  the  cellulose  is  liberated  during  its  diges- 
tion. 

This  raises  the  question  whether  the  various  carbhy- 
drates  are  equally  valuable  as  nutrients — a  question  which 
has,  as  yet,  received  scarcely  any  attention.  Their  equiva- 
lency has  been  assumed  and  made  the  basis  of  the  calculation 
of  rations,  simply  because,  in  the  lack  of  all  evidence,  this 
was  the  only  practicable  method.  It  is  quite  probable  that 
this  assumption  does  not  involve  any  very  great  error, 
except,  perhaps,  in  the  case  of  cellulose ;  but  the  actual 
comparative  value  of  these  substances  can  be  determined 
only  when  we  know,  first ^  how  much  latent  energy  each 
'contains,  and,  second^  how  much  of  this  energy  is  liberated 
dm'ing  digestion. 

This  is,  of  course,  equally  true  of  the  other  classes  of 
nutrients ;  *  but  the  study  of  this  subject  can  hardly  be 
said  to  have  begun,  and  the  only  object  of  mentioning  it 
here  is  to  show  how  provisional  are  our  present  methods 
of  estimating  the  value  of  fodders,  and  to  guard  the  reader 
against  the  error  of  considering  them  final  and  conclusive. 
They  are  of  great  value  and  have  rendered  very  important 
service ;  it  is  certain  that  they  are  not  grossly  erroneous. 
At  the  same  time,  no  good  and  much  harm  may  come 
from  an  unintelligent  overestimate  of  their  accuracy  and 
value. 

The  so-called  synthetic  chemical  actions  (that  is,  f orma- 

*  The  few  results  which  have  been  obtained  on  the  albuminoids  will 
be  mentioned  in  another  connection.     They  indicate  that  the  vegetable 
and  animal  albuminoids  are  practically  equivalent. 
11 


242  MANUAL    OF   CATILE-FEEDING. 

tions  of  complex  siil)staiices  from  simpler  ones),  of  which 
many  have  been  shown  to  take  place  in  the  body,  also  de- 
mand a  supply  of  force  for  their  performance.  Thus  the 
production  of  the  true  "  contractile  substance "  of  the 
muscles  (see  p.  224),  if  such  a  substance  exists,  from  pro- 
tein and  non-nitrogenous  matter,  must  absorb  and  render 
latent  large  amounts  of  force  coming  from  the  simultaneous 
oxidation  of  other  materials. 

Such  processes,  however,  have  no  significance  to  the 
feeder,  since  the  force  thus  rendered  latent  is  not  with- 
drawn from  the  body,  but  is  set  free  again  in  it  when  the 
complex  substance  is  decomposed. 

Influence  of  Stimulants. — The  influence  of  stimulants 
upon  the  chemical  processes  in  the  body  has  been  but  little 
investigated. 

Yoit's  experiments  on  cofPee  *  seem  to  indicate  that  this 
substance,  at  least,  has  practically  no  effect  upon  the  pro-' 
tein  consumption  in  the  dog.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would 
seem  that  the  oxidation  of  non-nitrogenous  matters  maybe 
considerably  affected  by  nervous  influences,  such  as  cold, 
stimulation  of  the  skin,  light,  sound,  etc.  The  fact  that 
the  excretion  of  carbonic  acid  is  less  during  sleep  also 
points  in  the  same  direction. 

There  appear  to  be  no  experiments  on  farm  animals 
'ouching  this  point,  but  we  may  safely  conclude  from  the 
^cts  known  concerning  other  animals,  as  well  as  from 
practical  experience,  that  nervous  excitement,  produced 
by  rough  treatment,  noise,  etc.,  is  unfavorable  to  the  best 
results  of  feeding. 

*  "  Untersuchungen  iiber  den  Einfluss  des  Kochsalzes,  Kaffee's,  etc., 
auf  den  Stoffwechsel." 


PAET  II. 
THE    FEEDING-STUFFS. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

DIGESTIBILITY. 

A  STiBSTAiTCE  IS  Said  to  be  digestible  if,  when  eaten,  it 
can  either  be  taken  up  directly  by  the  absorbent  vessels  of 
the  stomach  and  intestines,  or  is  capable  of  being  altered 
by  the  digestive  fluids  into  substances  which  can  be  thus 
resorbed.  The  pure  nutrients  (except,  perhaps,  cellulose) 
may  be  considered  to  be  wholly  digestible,  thus  justifying 
their  name,  but  as  they  occur  in  feeding-stuffs  various 
circumstances  conspire  to  prevent  their  entire  digestion. 

In  the  first  place,  as  has  already  been  more  than  once 
pointed  out,  our  methods  of  fodder  analysis  are  very  im- 
perfect, and  serve  only  to  divide  the  substances  contained 
in  the  fodder  into  groups  of  more  or  less  similar  matters. 
All  the  nitrogenous  matters  are — or  have  hitherto  been — 
included  under  the  albuminoids,  all  the  substances  soluble 
in  ether  under  fat,  etc.,  while  the  nitrogen-free  extract, 
being  determined  by  difference,  includes  everything  not 


244  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

belonging  to  the  other  four  dasses.  It  is  evident  that,  be- 
sides real  nutrients,  each  of  these  groups  of  substances 
may  include  many  things  which  are  wholly  indigestible, 
and  hence  that,  although  pure  protein,  for  example,  may 
be  wholly  digestible,  the  "crude  protein"  of  hay  or  straw 
may  be  only  partially  digestible,  as  is  actually  the  case. 

Furthermore,  a  substance  which  of  itself  is  entirely  di- 
gestible may  be  so  enclosed  in  indigestible  matters  as 
largely  or  entirely  to  escape  the  action  of  the  digestive 
fluids. 

For  example,  seeds  which  are  swallowed  whole  gener- 
ally escape  digestion,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  consist 
largely  of  digestible  matters,  because  their  hard  outer  coat- 
ings shut  np  the  latter  in  an  impervious  shell.  Similarly, 
if  the  walls  of  a  single  cell  are  so  hard  and  woody  as  to  be 
nnacted  on  by  the  juices  of  the  alimentary  canal,  the  con- 
tents of  the  cell  may  pass  through  the  animal  without 
being  digested. 

Finally,  the  relative  quantities  of  the  several  nutrients 
in  the  fodder  of  an  animal  have  a  mutual  influence  on  the 
amount  of  each  digested.  Tims,  if  a  fodder  be  made  over- 
rich  in  starch,  the  digestibility  of  the  albuminoids  is  de- 
creased, and,  at  the  same  time,  a  poi'tion  of  the  starch 
escapes  digestion. 

All  these  considerations  render  it  obvious  that  a  simple 
analysis  is  not  sufficient  to  determine  the  value  of  a  feed- 
ing-stuff, but  that  the  digestibility  of  its  constituents  must 
be  taken  into  account,  either  by  direct  experiment  or  by 
reference  to  the  results  of  previous  experiments. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  consider  such  general  principles 
as  experiment  has  established  regarding  the  digestibility, 
first,  of  coarse  fodder,  and  second,  of  the  concentrated 
bye-fodders,  under  the  influence  of  various  conditions,  and 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  245 

in  the  following  ones  take  np  in  detail  the  properties  and 
digestibility  of  the  more  important  feeding-stnffs. 

In  this  connection  it  is  important  to  distingnish  between 
digestibilitij  and  ease  of  digestion. 

By  the  digestibility  of  a  feeding-stnff,  or  any  ingredient 
of  it,  we  mean  the  extent  to  which  it  is  digested  nnder 
ordinary  conditions.  If,  in  a  digestion  experiment,  one- 
half  of  the  crude  protein  of  a  certain  feeding-stuff  is  di- 
gested, we  express  the  digestibility  of  that  nutrient  by  the 
number  50 -that  is,  50  per  cent,  of  it  was  digested.  If 
the  digestibility  of  the  crude  fibre  of  a  certain  sample  of 
hay  is  said  to  be  40,  it  means  that  40  per  cent,  of  it  was 
digested.  These  numbers,  expressing  the  percentage  of 
the  several  nuti-ients  of  a  fodder  which  is  digestible,  are 
called  digestion  coefficients. 

In  general,  a  high  digestibility  will  naturally  accompany 
easy  digestibility,  but  this  may  not  always  be  the  case,  and 
the  two  conceptions  are  entirely  distinct. 

§  1.  Digestibility  of  the  Nutrients  op  Coarse  Fodder. 

By  the  term  "  coarse  fodder  "  we  designate  the  various 
kinds  of  grass,  hay,  and  straw,  corn-fodder,  stover,  and, 
in  short,  all  kinds  of  forage,  whether  fed  green  or  dry. 
Coarse  fodder  commonly  consists  of  the  stalks  and  leaves 
of  the  plants,  and  is  rich  in  woody  fibre.  Under  ordi- 
nary circumstances  it  forms  the  bulk  of  the  fodder  of 
farm-animals,  with  the  exception  of  the  hog. 

In  this  section  we  shall  consider  the  digestibility  of  the 
several  nutrients  of  coarse  fodder  when  this  is  fed  exclu- 
sively, taking  up  subsequently  the  influence  of  the  quality 
of  the  fodder  and  of  the  presence  of  concentrated  bye-fod- 
ders on  the  digestibility  of  the  ration. 


946  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

The  Weende  Experiments. — The  foundations  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  digestibility  of  feeding-stuffs  were  laid 
by  the  labors  of  Ilenneberg  &  Stohmann,  at  the  Weende 
Experiment  Station  near  Guttingen.  Their  experiments 
began  in  the  year  1858,  and  in  1860  they  published  their 
first  results,  under  the  title  '' Be  it  rage  zur  BegriXndung 
einer  rationellen  Filtterung  der  Wiedei'hduer^''''  of  which  a 
second  volume  appeared  in  1863-64.  Further  experi- 
ments were  made  in  1863-64  by  G.  Kiihn,  H.  Schulze 
and  Aronstein,"  under  Ilenneberg's  direction,  and  in  1865 
by  Henneberg.f 

All  these  experiments  were  made  on  mature  oxen,  and 
gave  results  regarding  the  digestibility  of  feeding-stuffs, 
particularly  of  coarse  fodder,  which  subsequent  investiga- 
tions on  these  and  other  animals  have  served  only  to  con- 
firm, while  they  still  form  tlie  basis  of  our  feeding  stand- 
ards for  oxen. 

To  these  same  investigators  is  likewise  due  the  credit  of 
developing  and  perfecting  methods  of  experiment  adapted 
to  such  researches,  and  which  can  hardly  be  said  to  have 
existed  before,  so  that  the  Weende  experiments  may  be 
considered  to  mark  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in  the 
science  of  feeding. 

Since  their  publication  innumerable  feeding  experiments 
has^e  been  made,  involving  determinations  of  the  digesti- 
bility of  various  feeding-stuffs,  the  results  of  which,  in  all 
important  points,  have  been  the  same  as  those  reached  in 
Weende.  It  is  far  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work  to  give 
even  a  partial  account  of  these  experiments,  and  we  must 
content  ourselves  with  selecting  a  few  results  to  illustrate 
each  point  as  it  is  brought  up. 


♦  Jour,  f .  LandwirthBchaft,  1865,  p.  283  ;  1866,  p.  269,  and  1867,  p.  1 
fNeue  Beitrage,  etc.,  Heft  1,  p.  287. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  247 

Crude  Fibre  Digestible. — As  has  been  already  stated 
in  a  preceding  chapter,  a  portion  of  tlie  crude  fibre  of 
coarse  fodders  is  digestible.  This  fact  is  so  well  ascer- 
tained, and  has  been  so  uniformly  observed,  that  no  special 
proofs  of  it  need  be  brought  forward  here.  The  amount 
digested  varies,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  fodder  and 
other  circumstances,  from  25  per  cent,  to  as  high  as  70  per 
cent,  of  the  total  quantity. 

The  ruminants,  in  particular,  have  the  power  of  digest- 
ing large  amounts  of  crude  fibre,  a  power  due,  doubtless, 
to  the  great  extent  of  their  alimentary  canal  and  the  length 
of  time  during  which  the  food  remains  in  it.  They  are 
hence  especially  adapted  to  the  consumption  of  coarse 
fodder,  such  as  hay  and  straw,  and  can  extract  from  it 
considerable  quantities  of  nutrients,  while  the  horse  stands 
considerably  below  them  in  this  respect,  and  the  hog 
seems,  like  the  carnivorous  animals  and  man,  to  be  able  to 
digest  only  young  and  tender  fibre,  such  as  is  found  in 
roots  and  in  young  and  juicy  green  fodder. 

The  Digested  Portion  is  Cellulose. — The  "crude 
fibre "  obtained  in  analysis  is  a  mixture  of  cellulose  and 
"  lignin,"  but  the  digested  portion  has  been  shown  to  con- 
sist of  cellulose  only,  which  has  exactly  the  composition  of 
starch  (p.  39)  and  therefore  is  assumed  to  have  the  same 
nutritive  value  as  the  latter.* 

This  fact  has  been  deduced  by  a  comparison  of  the  ele- 
mentary composition  of  the  crude  fibre  of  the  fodder  and 
of  the  excrement,  as  in  the  following  example — an  experi- 
ment made  at  Weende  in  1860-61. 

The  fodder  was  wheat-straw,  and  52  per  cent,  of  its 
crude  fibre  was  digested,  while  48  per  cent,  was  found  in 

*  Compare  page  241, 


248 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


the  excrement.  The  original  crude  fibre  of  the  fodder  and 
that  of  the  excrement  had  the  following  composition  re- 
spectively : 


Excrement. 


Carbon .  . 
Hydrogen 
Oxygen. . . 


The  following  calculation  gives  us  the  composition  of 
the  digested  portion  : 


Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen. 

In  100  parts  of  crude  fibre  of  fodder. . . 

45.4 

6.3 

48.3 

"    48     "            ''           "         dung.... 

23.09 

3.26 

21  65 

DifEerence  =  52  parts  of  disrested  crude 
fibre 

22.31 
42.9 

3.04 

5.7 

26.65 

In  100  parts  of  digested  crude  fibre 

51.4 

"         "     cellulose 

44.4 

6.2 

49.4 

The  above  numbers  are  simply  intended  to  illustrate  the 
method  of  calculation ;  in  other  and  later  experiments  a 
much  closer  correspondence  with  theory  has  been  obtained. 
For  example,  the  average  of  eleven  experiments  made  in 
Weende  hi  1863-64,  on  various  khids  of  coarse  fodder,  and 
with  every  precaution,  was  the  following,  which  corresponds 
as  closely  as  can  be  expected  in  such  experiments  wdth  the 
composition  of  pure  cellulose  : 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


249 


Carbon . . . 
Hydrogen. 
Oxygen. . . 


Pure 

cellulose. 


44.4 

6.2 

49.4 


In  these  exp,eriments  the  true  cellulose  in  fodder  and 
excrements  was  determined  by  a  method  proposed  by  F. 
Schulze,  and  from  the  data  thus  obtained  the  absolute 
amounts  of  cellulose  digested  in  each  experiment  were  cal- 
culated. The  results  were  practically  identical,  as  the  fol- 
lowing table  shows,  with  the  amount  of  crude  fibre 
digested,  thus  furnishing  another  proof  that  the  latter  con- 
sisted of  cellulose. 


No.  of  Experiment. 

Crude  fibre 

digested. 

Lbs. 

Cellulose 

digested. 

Lbs. 

Difference. 
Lbs. 

1 

2.01 

1.91 

3.92 
4.63 
4.81 
4  37 
4  38 

2.12 
2.16 
3.87 
4.47 
4.55 
4.02 
4.13 

-f-0.11 
-1-0  25 

2 

4     ., 

—0  05 

5 

-0  16 

6 

-0  26 

7 

-0  35 

8 „   .    . 

—0.25 

By  no  means  the  whole  of  the  cellulose  of  coarse  fodder 
is  digested,  biit  its  percentage  digestibility  is  consider- 
ably greater  than  that  of  the  "  crude  fibre." 

Nitrogen-free  Extract. — While  a  part  of  the  crude 
fibre  is  always  digested,  especially  by  ruminants,  a  part  of 
the  so-called  nitrogen-free  extract,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
11* 


250 


MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


not  digested,  or  is  at  least,  even  if  present  in  an  easily 
soluble  form,  not  resorbed,  but  excreted  with  the  dung. 

Compensation. — It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  a  com- 
pensation  takes  place  between  the  digested  portion  of  the 
crude  fibre  and  the  undigested  portion  of  the  nitrogen-free 
extract.  That  is  to  say,  these  two  quantities  are  always 
nearly  equal,  so  that  the  amount  of  the  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract found  by  analysis  is  an  approximate  measure  of  the  di- 
gestibility of  the  total  non-nitrogenous  matters  of  the  fodder y 
edcdusiwe  of  fat  *  (^.  ^.,  crude  fibre  +  nitrogen-free  extract). 

This  fact,  however,  is  only  true  in  a  general  way  and  on 
the  average.  In  particular  cases  considerable  variations 
are  not  infrequent,  so  that  the  quantity  of  non-nitrogenous 
substance  digested  varies  from  somethnes  120  per  cent,  to 
as  low  as  80  per  cent.,  or  even  less,  of  the  amount  of 
nitrogen-free  extract  found  by  analysis,  the  theoretical 
number  being,  of  course,  100  per  cent. 

It  has  been  observed  in  several  cases  that  the  exactness 
of  the  compensation  between  the  digested  crude  fibre  and 
the  undigested  extract  is  influenced  by  the  digestibility  of 
the  crude  fibre. 

Thus  Stohmann,'!'  who  was  the  first  to  call  attention  to 
this  fact,  obtained  in  experiments  on  goats,  the  following 
figures  for  meadow  hay : 


Digestible  fibre  and  extract  in  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen-free  extract. . . 

Digestibility  of  crude  fibre 


Hay 

No.  1. 


97 
63.6 


Hay 

No.  2. 


86 

58.0 


Hay 
Hay  No.  3. 

No.  3.       (Another 
animal.) 


82 
51.0 


73 

44.6 


*  The  fat  is  sometimes  included.     Its  amount  is  so  small  as  to  make 
little  difference  practically. 

f  "Biologische  Studien,"  1  Heft,  p.  72. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


251 


Here  it  is  evident  that  with  increasing  indigestibility  of 
the  crude  fibre  the  amount  of  digestible  non-nitrogenous 
matters  falls  more  and  more  below  the  quantity  of  nitro- 
gen-free extract,  while  only  in  the  first  case  are  the  two 
approximately  equal. 

Other  investigators  have  confirmed  this  result,  and  it 
has  also  been  shown  that  the  decrease  in  the  digestibility 
of  the  total  non-nitrogenous  matter  is,  at  least  in  some 
cases,  less  rapid  than  that  in  the  digestibility  of  the  crude 
fibre. 

The  younger  and  more  tender  a  fodder  is,  the  smaller 
is  generally  its  percentage  of  crude  fibre,  and  the  greater 
is  the  digestibility  of  the  latter.  As  a  consequence,  the 
whole  amount  of  non-nitrogenous  matters  digested  from 
such  a  fodder  is  generally  larger,  in  comparison  with  the 
quantity  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  than  is  the  case  with  one 
cut  at  a  more  advanced  period  of  growth. 

As  an  example  of  this  may  be  mentioned  some  experi- 
ments on  sheep  made  by  Wolff ^  at  Hohenheim,  in  which 
the  animals  were  fed  with  green  clover  cut  at  four  differ- 
ent periods  of  growth,  'No.  1  being  the  youngest  and  No. 
4  the  oldest.  The  first  line  {a.)  of  the  table  gives  the  per- 
centage obtained  by  dividing  the  quantity  of  non-nitroge- 
nous matter  actually  digested  by  the  amount  of  nitrogen- 
free  extract  found  by  analysis,  and  hence  shows  how  much 
tlie  amount  actually  digested  varied  from  the  theoretical 
amount.  The  second  line  (5.)  gives  the  percentage  of  the 
crude  fibre  which  was  digested. 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

(6.) 

111.9 
60.0 

105.5 
53.0 

101.8 
49.6 

88.5 
38.8 

252  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

In  No.  1  and  No.  2,  whose  crude  fibre  was  easily  digest- 
ible, the  actual  amount  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  di- 
gested was  greater  tlian  that  calculated  ;  in  Xo.  3  the  two 
were  nearly  equal ;  in  No.  4,  where  the  crude  fibre  was 
less  digestible,  it  was  only  88.5  per  cent,  of  the  theoretical 
amount. 

It  is  obvious,  from  such  results  as  these,  that  while  the 
compensation  between  digested  crude  fibre  and  undigested 
nitrogen-free  extract  may  be  an  aid  in  forming  an  estimate 
of  the  digestibility  of  a  fodder,  it  is  not  sufiiciently  close 
to  serve  as  the  basis  of  exact  calculations. 

Recent  experiments  on  the  horse,  to  which  reference 
will  be  made  in  subsequent  pages,  have  shown  that  crude 
fibre  is  less  digestible  by  this  animal  than  by  ruminants, 
and  that  consequently  this  compensation  only  takes  place 
in  very  young  and  tender  fodder. 

Composition  of  Digestible  Portion  of  Nitrogen-free 
Extract. — It  has  been  shown,  by  essentially  the  same 
method  as  that  applied  to  crude  fibre,  that  the  digestible 
portion  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  has  very  nearly  the 
composition  of  starch. 

We  may  therefore  assume  that  all  the  digestible  non-ni^ 
trogenous  substances  of  the  fodder,  with  the  exception  of 
the  fat,  are,  like  starch  itself,  converted  into  sugar  or  sugar- 
like substances,  and  as  such  are  resorbed  and  taken  into 
the  circulation. 

Further  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  the  small  quantities 
of  organic  acids  either  contained  ready  formed  in  the  fod- 
der or  produced  during  digestion  from  the  carbhydrates. 

The  quantity  of  these,  however,  is  very  small,  and  we 
can,*  in  general,  regard  all  the  digestible  non-nitrogenous 


*With  the  reservations  made  ou  p.  1S4. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  253 

matter  of  the  fodder,  except  the  fat,  as  composed  of  carb- 
hjdrates  and  as  liaving  the  same  functions  in  nutrition  as 
sugar  and  starch  have  been  proved  to  have  in  the  experi- 
ments which  have  been  detailed  in  Part  I. 

Composition  of  Undigested  Nitrogen-free  Extract. 
— The  part  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  which  remains 
undigested  is  a  mixture  of  various  substances  richer  in 
carbon  than  the  carbhydrates  and  having,  as  a  wliole, 
nearly  the  percentage  composition  of  lignin,  as  given  on 
p.  39. 

It  is  therefore  a  matter  of  comparative  indifference  in 
fodder  analyses,  whether  the  lignin  dissolves  in  the  acid 
and  alkaline  liquids  used  to  isolate  the  cellulose  or  remains 
with  the  latter  as  incrusting  substance.  In  one  case  it  ap- 
pears in  the  results  of  analyses  as  part  of  the  nitrogen-free 
extract,  in  the  other,  as  crude  fibre  ;  in  both  cases  it  reap- 
pears in  the  excrements  and  leaves  the  total  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  digested  nutrients  the  same,  and  the  only 
effect  of  a  variation  of  this  sort  would  be  on  the  compen- 
sation between  the  undigested  extract  and  the  digested 
fibre. 

The  Aqueous  Extract. — From  the  numerous  experi- 
ments executed  in  Weende  on  oxen  and  sheep,  the  law  has 
been  deduced  that  the  total  quantity  of  solid  matter  that 
can  be  extracted  from  a  fodder  by  boiling  water,  i.  e.,  the 
aqueous  extract,  is  a  measure  of  the  digestible  portion  of 
the  nitrogen-free  extract.  In  single  cases,  however,  con- 
siderable variations  from  the  rule  were  observed  on  both 
sides  of  the  average,  amounting  to  as  much  as  14  per 
cent. 

This  method  of  judging  of  the  quality  of  coarse  fodder 
has  not  found  any  general  application,  for  the  reason  that 
no  necessary  connection  exists  between  the  digestible  ni- 


254  MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

trogen-free  extract  and  the  amount  of  substances  soluble 
in  water,  since  the  latter  includes  not  only  non-nitrogenous 
matters  but  also  larger  or  smaller  quantities  of  protein 
and  ash. 

The  rule  is  to  be  considered  as,  at  best,  a  purely  empiri- 
cal one,  which,  to  be  sure,  has  some  value  for  practical 
purposes,  since  in  general  the  digestibility  of  a  coarse  or 
green  fodder  is  greater  the  more  solid  matter  can  be  ex- 
tracted from  it  by  boiling  water,  but  to  which  no  scientific 
value  can  be  attached. 

Crude  Fat. — That  the  crude  fat,  or  rather  the  ether 
extract,  of  the  coarse  fodders  is  a  mixture  of  the  most 
various  substances,  some  of  which  are  digestible  and  some 
indigestible,  has  been  already  explained.  The  chlorophyll, 
or  green  coloring  matter  of  plants,  is  soluble  in  ether,  but 
seems  to  be  entirely  indigestible,  and  the  wax-like  sub- 
stances most  probably  belong  to  the  same  category. 

It  is  therefore  to  be  expected  that  the  digestibility  of  the 
crude  fat  will  be  very  different  according  to  the  kind  and 
quality  of  the  fodder.  It  is  always  greater  in  young  and 
tender  plants  than  in  older  ones,  and  it  has  also  been  ob- 
served that  the  crude  fat  of  clover  hay  and  of  the  straw  of 
the  legumes  is  generally  more  digestible  than  of  that  of 
meadow  hay  and  the  straw  of  the  cereals. 

Crude  Protein. — The  digestibility  of  crude  protein  in 
the  various  kinds  of  coarse  fodder  is  subject  to  greater 
variations  than  that  of  almost  any  other  constituent.  Of 
the  protein  in  clover  hay  and  meadow  hay,  e.g.,2i  quantity 
varying,  according  to  circumstances,  from  35  per  cent,  to 
75  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  is  digested.  Generally 
the  protein  is  more  easily  and  completely  digested  the 
greater  the  percentage  of  it  contained  in  the  fodder,  i.  e., 
the  narrower  the  nutritive  ratio.     At  the  same  time,  the 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  255 

quantity  and  quality  of  the  crude  fibre  has  an  influence  on 
its  digestibility. 

Formulae  for  Digestibility  of  Protein. — As  we  have 
seen,  the  digestibility  of  the  non-nitrogenous  matters  of  a 
coarse  fodder,  with  the  exception  of  the  small  quantity  of 
fat  which  it  contains,  can  be  estimated  from,  the  results  of 
analysis  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  practical  purposes,  al- 
though not  with  scientific  exactness. 

Unfortunately,  we  have  no  such  simple  means  of  esti- 
mating the  digestibility  of  the  crude  protein,  although  the 
attempt  has  more  than  once  been  made  to  supply  one  in 
the  shape  of  a  formula  which  should  enable  us  to  deter- 
mine the  digestibility  of  the  crude  protein  of  a  fodder  or 
of  a  ration  by  calculations  based  on  its  composition.  These 
formulae  are,  of  course,  all  empirical,  being  founded  on  the 
results  of  as  many  feeding  experiments  as  possible. 

In  ^dew  of  the  importance  of  protein  in  nutrition,  and 
the  great  variability  which  experiment  has  shown  to  exist 
in  its  digestibility,  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  a 
correct  formula  of  this  sort  are  manifest.  [N^evertheless, 
none  of  the  various  fornmlae  which  have  been  proposed 
have  met  with  much  favor,  and  it  seems  to  be  the  opinion 
of  the  best  authorities  that  it  is  yet  too  soon  to  attempt 
their  formation. 

All  these  formulae  aim  to  express  the  influence  of  the 
chemical  covipositlon  of  the  fodder  or  ration  on  the  diges- 
tibility of  its  protein — an  influence  which,  though  an  im- 
portant one,  is  by  no  means  the  only  factor  involved.  As 
regards  coarse  fodder  alone,  they  offer  little  advantage 
over  the  intelligent  use  of  "  digestion  coefficients,"  and  the 
less  since  the  results  obtained  by  their  aid  sometimes  vary 
widely  from  the  truth.  In  the  case  of  a  ration  including 
considerable  concentrated  fodder,  they  seem  to  yield  more 


256  MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 

exact  results,  and  may  prove  of  value  to  test  the  corre- 
spondence of  a  ration  with  the  feeding  standard,  though 
they  would  be  of  but  little  use  in  compounding  it.  For 
this  purpose,  Stohmann's  formula  ^  is  probably  the  best. 
It  is  the  following : 

in  which  j>'  represents  the  digestible  protein,  p  the  total 
"  crude  protein,"  and  s  the  total  non-nitrogenous  matters  of 
the  ration,  including  fat. 

This  formula  makes  the  digestibility  of  the  protein  de- 
pend on  the  relative  amounts  of  nitrogenous  and  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients,  ignoring  the  influence  of  the  amount 
of  crude  fibre.  For  this  reason,  it  appears  to  give  better 
results  when  applied  to  rations  containing  much  concen- 
trated fodder  than  when  used  for  those  composed  exclu- 
sively of  coarse  fodder. 

Finally,  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that  these  formulae 
are  entirely  different  fi*om  those  of  the  mathematician. 
They  do  not,  like  those,  express  necessary  truths,  nor  are 
they  deduced  from  any  well  recognized  natural  law.  They 
are  inductions,  and  depend  for  their  value  on  the  number 
and  accuracy  of  the  observations  upon  which  they  are 
based.  They  may  be  of  much  value,  but  we  must  beware 
of  trusting  them  too  implicitly. 

In  regard  to  the  digestibility  of  the  protein  of  the 
coarse  fodders,  much  that  is  of  importance  and  can  find 
application  in  practice  has  already  been  ascertained.  On 
the  more  important  kinds  of  coarse  fodder  large  numbers 
of  digestion  experiments  have  been  made,  and  we  are  able 
to  give,  as  the  results  of  these,  coeflScients  expressing  the 

*  Landw.  Versuchs-Stationen,  XI.,  401. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  257 

average  digestibility  of  the  protein  and  tlie  other  ingre- 
dients of  fodders  as  well  as  the  range  of  variation  ob- 
served. (See  table  in  Appendix.)  Some  of  these  num- 
bers are  the  average  of  more  than  fifty  experiments, 
and  therefore  may  be  regarded  as  expressing,  with  con- 
siderable accuracy,  the  average  digestibility  of  these  sub- 
stances. Others  are  the  result  of  only  a  few  trials,  and 
hence  are  more  liable  to  correction  by  the  results  of  new 
experiments.  Furthermore,  we  are  able  to  judge,  to  some 
extent,  of  the  digestibility  of  the  protein  in  coarse  fodder  of 
different  qualities  and  cut  in  various  stages  of  growth,  and 
of  its  digestibility  by  different  kinds  of  animals,  and  have 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  the  influence  exerted  upon  it 
by  the  addition  of  concentrated  feeding-stuffs  to  the  ra- 
tion. These  points  will  be  considered  in  the  following 
sections. 

Non-Protein. — Besides  protein,  coarse  fodder,  especially 
when  cut  young,  is  likely  to  contain  a  greater  or  less 
quantity  of  amides  and  other  nitrogenous  substances  which 
we  may,  for  convenience,  designate  as  non-protein.  These, 
so  far  as  investigated,  are  soluble  substances,  and  there 
is  little  doubt  that  they  are  easily  and  completely  di- 
gested. 

In  all  the  statements  of  the  previous  paragraph  reference 
was  had  to  "  crude  protein,"  that  is,  to  the  total  nitro- 
genous matters  of  the  fodder.  If  account  be  taken  of  the 
amount  of  "non-protein"  present,  the  digestibility  of  the 
true  protein  would,  of  course,  be  less ;  but  how  much  less 
future  investigations  must  show. 

Ash. — Phosjylioric  Acid. — When  ruminants  are  fed 
exclusively  on  coarse  fodder,  only  traces  of  phosphoric 
:acid  are  found  in  their  urine.  Only  so  much  of  the  plios- 
phoric  acid  of  the  fodder  seems  to  be  resorbed  as  is  neces 


258  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

sary  for  whatever  formation  of  new  tissue  or  of  milk  may 
take  place  ;  all  the  rest  is  excreted  in  the  dung.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  urine  of  the  ruminants  is,  like  that  of  the 
carnivora,  very  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  (20  to  45  per  cent, 
of  the  ash)  when  the  animals  are  fed  exclusively  on  milk, 
or  when  full-grown  animals  are  deprived  of  food  for 
several  days,  so  that  they  finally  subsist  upon  their  own 
flesh  and  fat.  When  calves  and  lambs  are  fed  large  quan- 
tities of  grain,  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid 
always  appears  in  the  urine. 

The  method  of  excretion  of  the  phosphoric  acid  of  the 
fodder  therefore  varies  with  the  kind  of  feeding.  Accord- 
ing to  Liebig,  phosphoric  acid  is  absent  from  the  mine  of 
herbivora  because  this  liquid  is  usually  alkaline  and  be- 
cause the  fodder  usually  contains  much  lime.  Phosphate 
of  lime  is  insoluble  in  alkaline  fluids,  and  therefore  phos- 
phoric acid  only  appears  in  the  urine  when  more  is  con- 
tained in  the  foddei*  than  is  sufficient  to  unite  with  the 
lime.  Presence  of  magnesia,  on  the  other  hand,  as  Bert- 
ram ^  has  recently  shown,  does  not  hinder  the  appearance 
of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  urine,  even  though  the  latter  be 
alkaline.  AVhen  this  takes  place  the  urine  is  found  to  be 
free  from  lime. 

Other  Ash  Ingredients. — Of  the  alkalies  of  the  fodder 
95  to  97  per  cent.,  of  the  magnesia  20  to  30  per  cent.,  of 
the  lime  only  2  to  5  per  cent,  and  sometimes  none,  and  of 
the  sulphuric  acid  and  chlorine,  nearly  the  whole  quantity, 
is  excreted  in  the  urine.  The  remainder  of  the  above- 
named  ash  ingredients,  so  far  as  they  are  not  held  back  and 
used  in  the  body  or  in  the  production  of  milk,  is  found, 
along  with  the  whole  of  the  silica,  in  the  dung. 

♦  Biedermann's  Central- Blatt,  Jahrg,  8,  p.  108. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING. 


259 


§  2.    clbcumstances  afpectina  the  digestibility  op  coarse 

Fodder. 

Influence  of  the  Quantity  of  Fodder. — Feeding  vary- 
ing quantities  per  day  and  liead  of  the  same  coarse  fodder 
does  not  alter  the  percentage  digestibility  of  the  various 
nutrients.  E.  g.,  if  on  a  certain  ration  of  hay  an  animal 
digests  76  per  cent,  of  the  total  quantity  of  crude  protein, 
and  the  amount  of  the  ration  be  increased  by  one-third  or 
one-fourth,  76  per  cent,  of  the  protein  will  still  be  digested, 
and  the  absolute  quantity  will  accordingly  be  one-third  or 
one-fourth  greater. 

This  fact  is  shown  by  a  number  of  the  Weende  experi- 
ments in  which  varying  quantities  of  meadow  hay  or 
clover  hay  were  fed  to  oxen,  and  also  in  experiments  by 
Wolff,*  at  Hohenlieim,  on  sheep  fed  on  clover-hay. 

In  the  latter  experiments  the  following  results  were  ob- 
tained : 


Fodder  per  day. 
Pounds. 

Digested. 

Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Fat. 
Per  cent. 

Crude  fibre. 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen- 

fi-ee 

extract. 

Per  cent. 

3    

59 
61 
60 

55 

56 
54 

51 
54 

51 

63 

2 

64 

2 

63 

Some  later  experiments  by  the  same  investigator  f  have 
shown  that  the  same  fact  is  true  of  the  digestibility  of 
lucerne  hay  by  sheep  and  likewise  by  the  horse.  The  re- 
sults on  the  latter  animal  were  as  follows : 

*  "  Die  Versuchs-Station  Hohenheim,"  p.  75. 
f  Landw.  Versuchs-Stationen,  XXL ,  20. 


260 


MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEBING. 


Fodder  per  day. 
Pounds. 

DiGESTKO. 

Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Fat. 
Per  cent. 

Crude  fibre. 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 
Per  cent. 

17  6      

74 
73 

77 

•  * 

33 
37 
43 

70 

22  0    ....               

71 

26  4.       .                  

72 

A  point  to  be  considered  is  that  all  the  observations 
hitherto  made  have  been  only  on  meadow  hay,  clover, 
and  lucerne,  of  good  or  medium  quality ;  but  the  same  fact 
is,  in  all  probability,  true  also  for  the  more  indigestible 
fodders,  such  as  straw,  chaff,  etc. 

This  constancy  is  very  important,  and  facilitates  greatly 
the  calculation  of  rations  for  the  various  purposes  of  agri- 
cultural practice. 

Effect  of  Drying. — All  the  nutrients  of  dry  coarse  fod- 
der are  digested  and  resorbed  to  the  same  extent  as  when 
it  is  fed  green. 

Of  the  numerous  experiments  on  this  point,  the  follow- 
ing, by  Weiske,"^  may  serve  as  an  example.  They  were 
made  on  two  sheep,  with  lucerne,  which  was  first  fed 
green,  and  then  after  having  been  carefully  dried  without 
loss.     The  averages  of  the  results  on  both  animals  were : 


Digested. 

Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Crude  fibre. 
Per  cent. 

Fat. 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen- 
free  extract. 
Per  cent. 

Green      

79 

78 

33 
34 

38 
50 

68 

Dry 

65 

*  Wolfif :  "  Die  ErnJihrung  der  Landw.  Nutzthiere,"  p.  97. 


MANUAL    OF   CATTLE-FEEDING  261 

"With  the  exception  of  the  fat,  whose  digestibilit}^,  as  we 
have  seen,  cannot  be  determined  very  accurate! j,  the  seve- 
ral nutrients  were  equally  well  digested  in  the  two  cases. 

This  result,  which  has  ])een  fully  confirmed  by  many 
other  experiments,  stands  in  apparent  contradiction  to  the 
general  experience  of  farmers. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  it  is  only  true  when 
the  green  fodder  and  the  hay  are  otherwise  of  exactly  the 
same  quality;  when  both  are  cut  at  the  same  time  and 
from  the  same  field,  and  when  none  of  the  leaves  or  other 
tender  and  especially  nutritious  parts  are  lost  during  the 
preparation  of  the  hay. 

These  conditions  are  never  completely  reached  in  prac- 
tice, especially  in  the  making  of  clover  or  lucerne  hay,  and 
for  this  reason,  and  also  because  green  fodder  is  commonly 
used  at  an  earlier  stage  of  growth  than  that  which  is  con- 
verted into  hay,  a  greater  nutritive  effect  is  generally  ob- 
served with  green  fodder. 

For  the  present  we  may  pass  over  the  question  whether 
the  large  quantity  of  water  which  milking  animals  con- 
sume in  green  fodder  exercises  any  considerable  influence 
on  the  amount  of  milk  produced,  but  the  digestibility  of 
the  organic  constituents  of  a  fodder  is  in  no  way  altered 
by  simple  drying  in  the  air,  provided  it  is  executed  with- 
out loss  of  parts  of  the  plants. 

On  \he  other  hand,  the  ordinary  method  of  making  hay 
involves  a  considerable  loss  of  leaves,  etc.,  and  the  product 
suffers  not  only  in  its  quality,  as  shown  by  chemical  analy- 
sis, but  in  its  digestibility  as  well. 

For  example,  in  some  experiments  at  Hohenheim,  by 
Wolff,  Funke,  and  Kellner,"^  the  loss  involved  in  the  prep- 

*  Landw.  Versuchs-Stationen,  XXI. ,  435. 


262 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


aration  of  lucerne  hay  amounted  to  7.13  per  cent,  of  tlie 
dry  matter,  and  the  composition  and  digestibility  of  the 
resulting  product,  as  compared  with  that  obtained  by  dry- 
ing the  same  material  without  loss,  were  as  follows : 


Composition. 

DlGBSTrBIUTT. 

Dried 
without  loss. 

Hay. 

Dried 
without  loRS. 

Hay. 

Protein     

17.00 

31.81 

43.80 
7.39 

14.94 

83.90 

44.22 

6.94 

71 

48 

29 

67 

Crude  fibre 

45 

Nitrogen-free  extract ) 

Fat  j 

Ash 

62 
23 

100.00 

100.00 

Effect  of  Storing. — The  storing  of  fodder  for  a  long 
time,  even  when  all  necessary  precautions,  such  as  a  dry 
and  airy  location,  etc.,  are  observed,  may  decrease  both  its 
digestibility  and  palatability. 

At  least,  this  conclusion  can  be  drawn  from  some  experi- 
ments executed  in  Hohenheim.*  Of  the  crude  protein  of 
a  sample  of  rowen,  62  per  cent,  w^as  found  digestible 
directly  after  the  harvest,  while  three  months  later  56  per 
cent.,  and  in  the  following  spring  54  per  cent.,  of  the  total 
quantity  was  digested  by  the  same  animals.  The  digesti- 
bility of  the  crude  fibre  also  decreased  somewhat,  while 
that  of  the  other  nutrients  remained  about  the  same.  A 
similar  fact  was  observed  by  Ilofmeisterf  in  regard  to 
clover  hay,  and  essentially  the  same  results  were  also  ob- 
tained in  later  experiments  in  Ilohenheim. 

♦Landw.  Jahrbucher,  IL,  282. 

f  Landw.  Versuchs-Stationen,  XVL,  353. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


263 


In  all  the  Holienlieim  experiments,  the  chemical  compo- 
sition of  the  fodder  remained  substantially  unchanged,  and 
the  deterioration  showed  itself  in  a  diminished  digesti- 
bility. Whether,  however,  the  smaller  nutritive  value  of 
hay  and  straw  kept  over  winter,  which  is  often  observed  in 
practice,  even  when  the  hay  has  apparently  kept  excellent- 
ly, is  caused  by  an  essential  alteration  in  the  digestibility 
of  the  fodder,  or  is  to  be  sought  chiefly  in  the  mechanical 
loss  of  the  more  nutritious  parts,  which  always  takes  place 
to  some  extent,  and  in  decreased  palatability,  must  be  left 
to  future  researches  to  decide. 

Period  of  Gro^vth. — Early  cut  forage  is  not  only  supe- 
rior, other  things  being  equal,  to  late  cut,  as  regards  its 
chemical  composition,  but  it  excells  it  in  digestibility  as  well. 

This  fact  is  established  by  abundance  of  experimental 
evidence.  In  some  experiments  by  G.  Kiilin,*  oxen  were 
fed  with  clover  hay  cut  from  the  same  field  at  three 
different  tunes,  viz. : 

I.  Cut  May  20,  just  before  flowering. 
n.     "    June  7,  in  full  bloom. 
III.     "       "     20,  end  of  flowering. 

The  composition  and  digestibility  of  the  water-free  sub- 
stance of  these  hays  were  the  following : 


Composition. 


Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Crude  fibre. 
Per  cent. 

Fat. 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen- 

free  extract. 

Per  cent. 

Ash. 
Per  cent. 

I 

19.56 
16.31 
13.19 

25.30 
28.11 
28.80 

2.25 

2.87 
2.86 

45.52 
44.95 

48.37 

10  10 

II    

7.76 
6  78 

Ill 

*  Wolff:  •'  Ernahrung  Landw.  Nutzthiere,"  p.  106. 


264 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Digestibility. 


I.. 
II. 
Ill 


Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Grade  fibre. 
Per  cent. 

Fat. 
Per  cent. 

Niti-ogen- 

free  extract. 

Per  Oent. 

76 
65 
59 

51 

47 
40 

58 
64 
60 

70 
68 
66 

Ash. 
Per  cent. 


In  experiments  made  at  Ilohenlieim  on  clover  cut  at 
four  stages  of  growtli  and  fed  to  sheep,  a  similar  decrease 
of  tlie  digestibility  with  increasing  age  was  observed,  that 
of  the  protein  falling  from  75  to  59,  and  that  of  the  crude- 
fibre  from  60  to  39.  Many  other  similar  experiments 
might  be  cited. 

Another  circumstance  which  increases  the  feeding  value 
of  early  cut  forage  is  the  fact  that  it  is  not  only  more 
digestible,  but  contains  a  much  larger  percentage  of  crude 
protein  than  is  found  in  that  cut  later.  The  difference  in 
the  actual  quantity  of  protein  digested  is  thus  larger  in  a 
two-fold  ratio  in  early  cut  fodder.  Thus,  in  the  above- 
mentioned  experiments  by  G.  Klihn,  the  quantity  of  pro- 
tein actually  digested  amounted,  in  the  first  case  (I.),  to 
13.9  per  cent,  of  the  total  dry  matter  of  the  fodder ;  in 
the  last  case  (HI.)  to  only  7.8  per  cent. 

These  facts  make  it  evident  that  the  same  kind  of  'coarse 
fodder  may  differ  greatly  in  its  nutritive  effect,  according 
to  the  circumstances  under  which  it  is  grown  and  har- 
vested. 

In  considering  these  results,  however,  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that,  as  regards  protein,  the  coefficients  express  the 
digestibility  of  the  total  nitrogenous  matters,  both  albumi- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


265 


noids  and  non-albuminoids.  As  we  liave  seen,  recent  in- 
vestigations have  revealed  the  presence  of  large  amounts 
of  "non-protein  "  in  coarse  fodder,  especially  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  its  growth.  This  non-protein  is,  in  all  proba-- 
bility,  entirely  digestible,  and  it  is  easily  to  be  seen  that 
its  presence  might  affect  the  correctness  of  the  above  re- 
sults. 

The  only  experiments  touching  this  point  are  a  few  by 
Wolff  *  on  sheep  and  on  a  horse,  with  hay  cut  from  the 
same  field  in  two  different  years.  These  gave  the  fol- 
lowing digestion  coefficients,  a  for  total  nitrogenous  matter, 
h  for  true  protein  : 


Fodder  cut. 

Sheep. 

HOBSE. 

a. 

b. 

a. 

b. 

April  24,  1874 

Mavis,      " 

79.1 
71.1 
69.1 
73.3 
72.1 
55.5 

73.3 
64.3 
64.2 
59.1 
66.7 
51.9 

68.8 
66.1 
61.8 

.... 

June  10,     "        

May  14,  1877 

June  9,     *'      

52.1 
59  6 

"    26,   "      

58  7 

These  figures  are  somewhat  conflicting  as  regards  the 
digestibility  of  the  true  protein  in  fodder  cut  at  different 
times,  and  it  must  be  left  for  future  investigations  to  de- 
cide how  far  the  results  which  have  been  obtained  for  the 
total  nitrogenous  matter  of  coarse  fodders  are  true  of 
their  actual  protein. 

Methods  of  Preparing. — While  the  various  methods 


♦  Land w.  Jahrbiicher,  VII. ,  I.  Supplement,  p.  263. 
13 


266 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


of  preparing  fodder  for  animals,  such  as  steaming,  ensi- 
lage, etc.,  may  be  accompanied  by  practical  advantages, 
all  the  experiments  hitherto  executed  show  that  the  diges- 
tibility is  not  sensibly  increased  thereby. 

Thus,  in  the  experiments  executed  in  1862,  at  the 
Dahme  Experiment  Station,  by  Hellriegel  &  Lucanus,* 
it  was  found  that  the  digestibility  of  rye-straw  by  sheep 
was  not  increased  either  by  fermenting  or  cooking  it. 
Experiments  in  Proskau,  by  Funke,  gave  the  same  re- 
sults regarding  the  digestibility  of  the  total  dry  matter 
and  the  cellulose  of  a  mixed  ration  fed  to  milk  cows. 

Indeed,  recent  experiments  at  Poppelsdorf  f  showed  a 
decreased  digestibility  of  hay  as  a  result  of  steaming.  A 
rather  coarse  hay  was  fed  to  oxen,  first  dry,  then  steamed, 
and  finally  moistened  with  as  much  water  as  it  took  up 
when  steamed.     The  following  were  the  results : 


DiOKSTIBILITT. 

Total 
organic 
matter. 
Per  cent. 

Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Fat. 
Per  cent. 

Crude  fibre. 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 
Per  cent. 

Dry 

58 
56 
54 

46 
30 
39 

39 
41 
38 

59 

58 
54 

60 

Steamed 

Moistened 

59 

57 

Steaming  and  moistening  seem  to  have  affected  the  di- 
gestibility of  the  protein  especially.  It  is  possible  that  the 
large  decrease  observed  may  have  been  caused  by  an  ex- 
traction of  soluble  nitrogenous  matters,  though  care  seems 

♦  Landw.  Versuclis-Stationen,  VII.,  243,  324,  387,  and  467. 
\  Homberger :  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VIII.,  933. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  267 

to  have  been  taken  to  avoid  tliis,  but  no  irict'ease  of  digest- 
ibility as  a  result  of  cooking  is  shown. 

In  these  experiments  the  steamed  fodder  was  purposely 
allowed  to  cool  before  it  was  used,  in  order  to  observe  only 
the  effect  of  cooking,  and  no  preference  for  the  steamed 
fodder  on  the  part  of  the  cattle  was  observed,  but  rather 
the  reverse.  In  practice,  however,  the  palatability  of  a 
fodder  may  often  be  very  considerably  increased  by  suita- 
ble preparation,  and  the  ammals  thus  induced  to  eat  larger 
quantities  of  a  fodder  not  perhaps  agreeable  to  them  in  its 
natural  state.  It  would  seem  that  some  gain  must  also 
accrue  from  warm  fodder  (see  p.  239).  The  preparation  of 
fodder  may  thus  produce  very  favorable  results  in  a  prac- 
tical point  of  view,  although  the  quantity  of  nutrients 
which  an  animal  extracts  from  a  given  amount  of  dry 
substance  is  no  greater  in  one  case  than  the  other. 

As  in  the  case  of  coarse  fodder,  the  digestibility  of  con- 
centrated fodders  is  not  increased  by  the  method  of  prep- 
aration. This  is  shown,  e.  ^.,  by  experiments  made  in 
Mockern  on  feeding  bran  to  oxen ;  not  only  was  the  diges- 
tibility not  increased,  but,  on  the  contrary,  decreased  more 
or  less  by  boiling,  addition  of  leaven  and  production  of  in- 
cipient fermentation,  and  stiU  more  by  successive  treatment 
with  alkalies  and  acids.  The  effect  was  greatest  on  the 
protein  and  least  on  the  non-nrtrogenous  constituents. 

Digestibility  by  Different  Kinds  of  Animals. — The 
different  kinds  of  ruminating  animals,  as  oxen,  cows,  sheep, 
and  goats,  digest  the  same  fodder  equally  well. 

As  a  mean  of  about  forty  single  determinations,  the  di- 
gestibility of  all  the  constituents  of  meadow  hay  is  found 
to  be  about  2  per  cent,  greater  in  the  case  of  oxen  and 
cows  than  in  that  of  sheep,  while,  in  a  still  greater  num- 
ber of  experiments,  clover-hay  or  green  clover  is  found 


268  MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 

to  be  digested  2  to  3  per  cent,  better  by  sheep  than  by 
oxen  and  cows.  Tlie  differences,  small  in  themselves, 
thus  fully  compensate  each  other  in  the  two  kinds  of  hay. 
In  feeding-experiments  on  goats,  likewise,  average  diges- 
tion coefficients  have  been  observed  in  all  experiments  yet 
made. 

In  the  case  of  a  non-ruminating  animal,  like  the  horse, 
coarse  fodder  is  less  completely  digested  than  by  rumi- 
nants. 

A  large  number  of  experiments  on  the  comparative  di- 
gestibility of  various  feeding-stuffs  by  the  horse  and  sheep 
liave  lately  been  executed  at  the  Hohenheim  Experiment 
Station,  under  "Wolff's  direction.  A  comparison  of  all  the 
results  yet  obtained  ^  leads  to  the  following  conclusions : 

1.  Meadow-hay  is  less  fully  digested  by  the  horse  than 
by  sheep,  the  difference  amounting  to  11  to  12  per  cent, 
of  the  water-free  substance. 

2.  The  crude  protein  of  hay  is  nearly  as  digestible  by 
the  horse  as  by  sheep.  In  the  better  qualities  of  hay  ex- 
perimented upon,  the  difference  amounted  to  4  to  6  per 
cent,  of  the  total  amount,  while  in  some  of  the  poorer 
sorts  more  was  digested  by  the  horse  than  by  sheep.  This 
appears  to  be  the  case  not  only  with  the  total  nitrogenous 
matters  but  also  with  the  true  protein  (compare  p.  265). 

3.  Of  the  non-nitrogenous  constituents  of  hay,  the  nitro- 
gen-free extract  is  slightly,  and  the  crude  fibre  considera- 
bly better  digested  by  sheep  than  by  the  horse.  As  a 
result,  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  portion  of  the  hay  di- 
gested is  narrower  in  the  case  of  the  horse  than  in  that  of 
sheep.  As  regards  fat,  all  the  experiments  gavo  very  low 
results  for  this  nutrient,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  con- 

•  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VIII. ,  I.  Supplement,  p.  97. 


MANUAL    OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  269 

Biderable  qnantitj  of  biliarj  products,  etc.,  in  the  excre- 
ments. 

4.  Of  two  kinds  of  lucerne  liay,  the  protein  and  nitro- 
gen-free extract  were  equally  well  digested  by  the  horse 
and  by  sheep,  while  the  crude  fibre  appeared  to  be  rela- 
tively somewhat  better  digested  than  that  of  meadow  hay. 

5.  The  digestibility  of  straw  (of  winter  wheat)  was 
found  to  depend  somewhat  on  the  amount  of  mastication  it 
received,  but  in  general  to  be  small.  Under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances it  seems  to  be  hardly  half  as  well  digested  by 
the  horse  as  by  ruminants. 

6.  Concentrated  feeding-stuffs  (oats,  beans,  and  maize, 
the  two  latter  soaked  with  water)  are  digested  to  the 
same  extent  by  the  horse  and  by  sheep.  Similar  observa- 
tions have  been  made  regarding  the  digestibility  of  con- 
centrated fodders  by  the  hog. 

All  these  conclusions  apply,  in  the  first  place,  only  to 
the  conditions  of  these  experiments,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
there  is  every  reason  to  expect  that  they  will  be  confirmed 
by  subsequent  investigation,  at  least  in  their  main  features. 

Influence  of  Breed. — If  the  various  species  of  rumi- 
nants digest  their  fodder  to  the  same  extent,  we  should 
still  less  expect  to  find  important  differences  in  this  respect 
between  the  breeds  of  one  and  the  same  species. 

In  fact,  repeated  experiments  in  Dresden  and  Hohenheim 
have  agreed  in  showing  that,  e.  g.,  Merinos,  Southdown  s, 
and  the  so-called  Wurtemberg  Bastard-sheep,  both  when 
store-fed  and  on  an  exclusive  ration  of  meadow  or  clover- 
hay,  as  well  as  on  a  more  or  less  rich  fattening  fodder, 
digest  the  same  feeding-stuffs  about  equally  well. 

In  these  considerations  we  nmst  not  confuse  the  digesti- 
hility  of  a  fodder  with  its  nutritive  effect.  The  latter  may 
be  very  unequal  in  the  different  breeds,  and  is  determined, 


270  MANUAL    OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

on  the  one  hand,  h\  the  appetite  of  the  animal  and  the 
quantity  of  fodder  which  it  can  eat  and  digest  day  by  day, 
and  on  the  other,  hand,  by  the  whole  organization  of  the 
animal  and  its  temperament  and  congenital  peculiarities. 

With  this,  however,  the  actual  percentage  digestibility 
of  a  fodder  has  primarily  nothing  to  do.  The  latter  is 
essentially  the  same  in  all  breeds  for  the  same  fodder,  it 
beinff,  of  course,  assumed  that  thei*e  are  no  individual 
peculiarities  of  digestion  to  disturb  the  result. 

Age  of  the  Animals. — Even  at  different  ages  or  in 
different  stages  of  growth  the  digestive  power  for  any 
given  fodder  seems  to  be  nearly  the  same,  provided  that 
the  animals  are  weaned  from  milk  and  that  the  fodder  is 
agreeable  in  taste  and  sufficient  in  nutritive  effect.  This 
fact  has  been  shown  by  experiments  made  in  Ilohenheim  * 
on  lambs  of  two  races,  and  continued  for  nine  months  con- 
secutively (from  the  fifth  to  the  fom-teenth  month  of  their 
age),  and  which  included  both  exclusive  hay  fodder  and 
rich  feeding  with  hay  and  grain.  Kecent  experiments 
made  by  Weiske  f  on  lambs,  extending  over  about  ten 
months,  have  given  the  same  result. 

It  is  of  course  possible  that  this  constancy  of  digestive 
power  would  be  less  marked  in  case  of  a  poor  and  diffi- 
cultly-digestible fodder,  but  young  animals,  so  long  as  they 
are  capable  of  and  inclined  to  ]-apid  growth,  cannot  thrive 
on  such  a  fodder ;  they  consume  a  quantity  insufficient  for 
their  normal  nourishment,  and  must  suffer  under  a  long 
continuance  of  such  treatment. 

Individual  Peculiarities  have  often  a  greater  influence 
on  the  digestive  process  than  the  breed  or  even  the  species 
of  the  animal. 

♦  Landw.  Jahrbiiclier,  II.,  219. 
flbid.,  IX.,  205. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLF.-FEEDING.  271 

Besides  temporary  disturbances  of  digestion  and  the 
weak  digestion  caused  by  old  age,  animals  of  the  same 
species  and  breed  and  of  the  same  age  and  live-weight 
often  show  constant  differences  in  digestive  power,  which, 
however,  seldom  exceed  2  to  4  per  cent,  of  the  total  dry 
matter  of  the  fodder. 

Greater  differences  in  digestive  power  sometimes  show 
themselves  in  single  individuals  which  fall  strikingly  below 
other  animals  of  the  same  age  in  development  and  live- 
weight.  For  example,  a  difference  of  7  per  cent,  in  the 
digestibility  of  the  total  organic  matter,  and  of  15  per 
cent,  in  that  of  the  crude  fibre,  was  observed  in  such  a  case 
in  Proskau.  At  the  same  time,  however,  it  was  found 
that  those  animals  of  a  herd  which  attained  the  greatest 
live-weight  in  a  certain  time  on  a  given  kind  of  fodder  did 
not  always  possess  the  greatest  digestive  power  nor  produce 
the  most  live-weight  fi'om  the  same  weight  of  food.  The 
greater  or  less  appetite,  and  the  quantity  of  fodder  daily 
eaten,  are  much  more  important  conditions  of  the  increase 
in  weight  of  growing  or  fattening  animals  than  an  increased 
digestive  power. 

Actually  stunted  animals,  those  which  have  been  insuffi- 
ciently nourished  in  youth,  especially  during  suckling,  have 
also  generally  a  relatively  Aveak  digestive  power  in  later  sta- 
ges of  development.  How  far  the  latter  can  be  strengthened 
by  the  manner  of  rearing  still  remains  to  be  investigated. 

Effect  of  Work  on  Digestion.— A  question  of  some 
importance  is  the  effect  of  the  performance  of  work  on  the 
digestibility  of  the  fodder.  In  the  recent  experiments  at 
Hohenheim  on  the  horse,  already  alluded  to,  this  question 
was  made  the  subject  of  investigation.* 

♦  Landw.  Jabrbiicher,  VIII.,  I.  Supplement,  p.  73. 


272 


MANUAL    OF    CATTLP>FEEDING. 


Two  series  of  experiments  were  made.  In  the  first,  tlie 
daily  ration  consisted  of  13.2  lbs.  of  oats,  11  lbs.  of  hay, 
and  3.3  lbs.  of  cut  straw ;  in  the  second,  of  16.5  lbs. 
of  hay  and  8.8  lbs.  of  beans.  In  the  following  tables  are 
to  be  found  the  amount  of  work  performed  per  day  in  each 
experiment,  and  the  percentage  digestibility  of  the  several 
nutrients,  reckoned  on  the  total  ration. 

Series  I. 


Work  performed  per 

day. 
Kilogramme-meters. 


475,000 
950,000 
1,425,000 
950,000 
475,000 

600,000 

1,800,000 

600,000 


Digestibility. 

Total 

Organic 

substance. 

Per  cent. 

Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Fat. 
Per  cent. 

Crude  fibre. 
Per  cent. 

58.73 

70.84 

52.05 

31.24 

58.63 

67.63 

52.55 

29.03 

58.60 

69.95 

45.90 

32.33 

56.41 

66.62 

48.73 

25.82 

54.82 

68.21 

45.99 

26.95 

Nitrogen- 
free  extract. 
Per  cent. 


68  27 
69.61 
68.27 
67.65 
64.41 


Series  II. 


60.04 

77.46 

24.00 

38.55 

58.48 

75.00 

12.61 

34.73 

57.69 

74.60 

10.12 

34.50 

66.80 
67.30 
66.05 


In  each  series  the  digestibility  decreases  slightly  toward 
the  close,  but  this  is  obviously  independent  of  the 
amount  of  work  performed.  It  was  probably  caused  by  a 
deterioration  in  the  quality  of  the  hay  consequent  on  keep- 
ing and  handling. 

In  these  experiments,  then,  the  digestibility  of  the  fod- 
der was  not  affected  by  the  amount  of  work  performed. 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  273 

Presumably,  this  is  true  in  all  cases,  but  these  are  the  only 
experiments  yet  made  on  this  point. 

§  3.  Digestibility  op  Concentrated  Fodders  and  their  Influ- 
ence ON  that  op  Coarse  Fodder. 

Method  of  Experiment. — The  foregoing  section  shows 
clearly  that  the  percentage  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder, 
so  long  as  the  latter  forms  the  exclusive  ration,  is  de- 
termined very  largely  by  the  chemical  composition  of  its 
dry  matter  as  affected  by  the  time  of  cutting,  weather, 
soil,  manure,  etc.,  while  other  circumstances,  such  as  quan- 
tity, state  of  dryness,  and  method  of  preparation,  as  w^ell 
as  the  kind,  breed,  and  age  of  the  animals,  have  very  little 
influence  upon  it. 

This  is  an  important  result,  and  one  of  practical  worth 
in  the  calculation  of  the  daily  ration  of  an  animal. 

It  is,  however,  still  more  important  to  investigate 
whether  and  how  much  the  digestibility  of  the  constituents 
of  coarse  fodder  is  altered  by  the  addition  of  concentrated 
fodders,  as  well  as  to  determine  the  digestibility  of  the 
latter. 

In  the  nature  of  the  case  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
make  direct  experiments  w^itli  concentrated  fodders,  since 
they  are  not  suited  for  the  requirements  of  herbivorous 
animals.  The  best  we  can  do  is  to  feed  increasing  quan- 
tities of  any  concentrated  fodder  along  with  a  fixed  quan- 
tity of  coarse  fodder  of  known  digestibility,  and  ascertain 
the  digestibility  of  the  mixture  as  a  whole.  It  is,  of  course, 
in  most  cases  impossible  to  determine  with  certainty  what 
portion  of  the  digested  nutrients  comes  from  the  coarse 
fodder  and  what  from  the  concentrated  fodder  ;  but  results 
may  be  reached  which  possess  sufficient  exactitude  for  the 
purpose  of  compounding  rations. 
12* 


974  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

If  a  concentrated  f(xlder  decreases  the  digestibility  of 
the  coarse  fodder  with  which  it  is  fed,  we  should  expect 
that  with  a  greater  relative  quantity  of  the  former  in  the 
ration  the  decrease  in  the  digestibility  of  the  ration  as  a 
whole  would  be  also  greater. 

We  therefore  proceed  as  follows :  in  a  fii'st  period  we 
determine  the  digestibility  of  the  coarse  fodder — hay,  for 
example — when  fed  alone.  In  a  second  period  we  add  to 
the  hay  a  certain  amount  of  the  concentrated  fodder  in 
question — maize  meal,  for  instance — and  determine  the 
digestibility  of  the  mixture.  In  a  third  period  we  increase 
the  relative  quantity  of  meal  very  considerably,  and  deter- 
mine the  digestibility  of  this  mixture. 

Now,  assuming  the  digestibility  of  the  hay  to  have  been 
the  same  in  the  second  and  third  periods  as  in  the  first,  we 
calculate,  from  our  experimental  results,  the  digestion  co- 
efficients for  the  maize  meal  in  the  second  and  third 
periods. 

It  is  obvious  that,  if  neither  feeding-stuff  has  altered  the 
digestibility  of  the  other,  these  two  sets  of  digestion  co- 
efficients ought  to  be  the  same  within  the  limits  of  experi- 
mental error,  and,  in  that  case,  we  have  not  only  proved 
this  fact  but  have  also  determined  the  digestibility  of  the 
maize  meal. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  digestibility  of  either  feeding- 
stuff  has  been  diminished  by  the  presence  of  the  other,  it 
is  plain  that  our  method  of  calculating  the  results  will 
show  an  apparent  decrease  in  the  digestibility  of  the 
maize  meal.  In  the  case  supposed  it  would  be  impossible 
to  determine  directly  in  which  of  the  two  feeding-stuffs 
the  decrease  took  place,  and  the  method  of  expressing  the 
results  would  depend  partly  on  the  results  of  other  experi- 
ments and  partly  on  questions  of  convenience. 


MANUAL   OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 


275 


Some  of  the  examples  contained  in  the  following  para- 
graphs will,  perhaps,  make  the  method  of  calculation 
clearer,  while  they  at  the  same  time  serve  to  elucidate 
some  of  the  practical  questions  that  arise. 

These  questions  concern  chiefly  the  influence  of  concen- 
trated fodders  on  the  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder,  and  to 
them  we  shall  devote  most  of  our  attention,  since  it  is  im- 
possible, within  the  limits  of  this  work,  to  notice  the 
numerous  experiments  on  the  digestibility  of  the  various 
concentrated  fodders.  For  the  results  of  the  latter  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  Appendix. 

Effect  of  Albuminoids. — E.  Schulze  &  Marcker,*  in 
Weende,  have  made  experiments  on  the  effect  of  a  prepara- 
tion of  wheat-gluten  containing  78  per  cent,  of  albuminoids 
on  the  digestibility  of  meadow-hay.  They  experimented 
on  sheep,  and  obtained  the  following  results  for  the  per- 
centage digestibility  of  the  hay,  on  the  assumption  that 
the  gluten  was  wholly  digested  : 


Protein. 

Crude 
Fibre. 

Fat  and 
nitrogen- 
free  extract. 

Total 
organic 
matter. 

Hay  alone 

57 
53 
-4 

57 

58 
+  1 

66 
67 

+  1 

62 

Hay  and  119.4 grms.  gluten.. 
Difference 

63 

+  1 

A  second  experiment,  with  a  larger  amount  of  gluten, 
gave,  on  the  same  assumption,  the  following  results  : 


Hay  alone 

Hay  and  262.2  grms.  gluten. 


Difference. 


Protein. 


55 
49 


Crude 
Fibre. 


55 


Fat  and  ni- 
trogen-free 
extract. 


65 
61 


Organic 
matter. 


61 

60 


*  Jour,  fiir  Landwirthschaft,  1871,  p.  68. 


276 


MANUAL   OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 


The  slight  decrease  in  the  digestibility  of  the  protein  of 
the  hay  becomes  so  exceedingly  small,  when  calculated  on 
the  whole  ration,  as  to  be  of  no  practical  significance, 
while  the  gluten  exerted  practically  no  influence  on  that 
of  the  remaining  nutrients.  Thus,  these  results  show  not 
only  that  even  these  large  additions  of  albuminoids  to  the 
fodder  produced  no  essential  alteration  of  digestibility,  but 
also  that  the  gluten  was  almost  completely  digestible. 

Very  similar  results  were  obtained  in  a  series  of  experi- 
ments, executed  at  Ilohenheim,"^  on  the  digestibility  of 
"  flesh  meal "  by  swine.  It  was  fed  in  varying  quanti- 
ties along  with  potatoes.  Assuming  that  the  digestibility 
of  the  potatoes  was  not  altered  by  the  addition  of  the 
highly  nitrogenous  flesh  meal,  the  following  numbers  were 
obtained  for  the  digestibility  of  the  latter : 


Number 

of 
animal. 

Fed. 

Digestibility  of  Flesh-Mbal. 

Period, 

Potatoes. 
Grms. 

Flesh 
meal. 
Grms. 

Protein . 
Per  cent. 

Fat. 
Per  cent. 

Organic 
substance. 
Per  cent. 

III 

Ill 

2 

3 
1 
4 
2 
3 
1 
4 

4,500 
5,000 
5,000 
4,500 
6,500 
8,000 
7,500 
7,500 
6,063 

190 
210 
500 
450 
195 
240 
235 
225 
279 

95.1 
97.0 
98.5 
98.9 
102.9 
96.4 
91.4 
98.6 
97.4 

82.3 

87.5 
88.7 
88.5 
75.2 
90.7 
83.3 
89.6 
85.7 

93.4 

96.1 
93.5 
90.9 
94.3 
86.9 
87.8 
90.4 

Average 

91.7 

*  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VIII.,  I.  Supplement,  p.  200. 


MANCTAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING,  277 

Though  the  ratio  between  potatoes  and  flesh  meal  varied 
between  wide  Hniits,  the  digestibility  of  the  latter,  calcu- 
lated on  the  basis  of  unaltered  digestibility  of  the  former, 
varied  but  very  little,  and  rather  increased  than  decreased 
in  the  experiments  in  which  relatively  most  flesh  meal  was 
fed.  Since  the  flesh  meal  contained  no  crude  fibre  or  ni- 
trogen-free extract,  the  digestibility  of  these  ingredients 
of  the  potatoes  could  be  deterinijied  directly  in  each  ex- 
periment. It  was  found  to  bo-  sensibly  the  same  in 
all. 

Obviously,  the  results  of  these  experiments  are  as  if  the 
potatoes  were  equally  well  digested  in  all  cases,  and  as  if 
the  above  coefficients  representtid  the  digestibility  of  the 
flesh  meal ;  and  though  this  f a^it  cannot,  perhaps,  be  said 
to  be  absolutely  proved,  the  practical  result  is  the  same  as 
if  it  were,  and  we  can  make  it  the  basis  of  calculations  of 
digestibility  in  similar  cases. 

Nitrogenous  Bye-Fodders. --By  means  of  experiments 
made  on  the  same  plan  as  those  just  described,  it  has  been 
found  that  for  the  ordinary  nitrogenous  bye-fodders,  such 
as  oil  cake,  cotton-seed  cake,  bran,  beans,  etc.,  digestion 
coefficients  may  be  obtained,  and  that  these  coefficients 
remain  nearly  constant  whatever  the  quantity  of  the  fodder 
given,  while  the  digestibility  of  the  coarse  fodder  remains 
unaltered  by  the  addition  of  the  concentrated  fodder. 

This  conclusion  is  drawn  from  the  results  of  numerous 
digestion  experiments  in  which  increasing  quantities  of  the 
concentrated  fodder  were  fed  along  with  meadow  or  clover 
hay.  Such  experiments  have  been  made  in  Tlohenheim, 
Mockern,  and  Halle,  especially  with  oil  cake,  but  also 
with  crushed  beans,  rape  cake,  wheat  bran,  and  cotton-seed 
meal,  on  sheep,  goats,  and  oxen,  with  the  results  stated. 
In  all  probability,  experiment  would  show  that  the  same 


278  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

thing  is  true  of  other  highly  nitrogenous  bye-fodders,  e.  g.^ 
all  kinds  of  oil  cake,  the  legumes,  brewers'  grains,  etc. 

The  results  of  these  determinations  of  the  digestibility 
of  bye-fodders  are  included  in  Table  II.  of  the  Appendix. 
As  the  general  result  of  the  experiments,  we  can  say  that 
nitrogenous  hye-fodders  do  not  decrease  the  digestibility  of 
the  coarse  fodder  with  lohlch  they  are  used. 

The  Grains. — The  influence  of  the  grains,  i.  e.,  of  con- 
centrated fodders  with  a  medium  nutritive  ratio  (1  :  5-S), 
on  the  digestibility  of  coarse  fodders  has  received  compar- 
atively little  attention. 

Oats  have  been  the  subject  of  experiments  by  Hof- 
raeister  &  Haubner  ^  and  by  Wolff  f  on  sheep.  In  both 
investigations  it  was  found  that  an  addition  of  oats  to 
the  coarse  fodder  did  not  essentially  alter  its  digestibility. 
Wolff  obtained  the  following  results,  on  the  assumption 
that  the  digestibility  of  the  coarse  fodder  (hay)  was  not 
altered : 


Ratio  of  hay  to  oats. 

Crude  protein  of  oats  digested. 
Per  cent. 

1  :  1.76 

78.0 

1  :  3.09 

78.4 

1  :  3.30 

78.5 

The  constancy  of  the  digestion  coefficient  for  oats  shows, 
as  explained  above,  that  the  assumption  of  unaltered  diges- 
tibility of  the  coarse  fodder  is  probably  correct,  and  can  at 
least  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  calculation  of  rations.  Hof- 
meister  &  Ilaubner's  results  were,  on  the  same  assumption, 
as  follows : 


Eatio  of  hay  to  oats. 
1  :  0.18 

Crude  protein  of  oata  digested. 
Per  cent. 

74.0 

1  :  0.44 

74.1 

1  :  0.75 

67.3 

*  Landw.  Versuchs-Stationen,  VI.,  185  and  301. 
f  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  11.,  288. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  279 

Here  we  have  also  a  nearly  constant  coefficient  for  the 
protein  of  the  oats,  except  in  the  last  case,  where  a  slight 
depression  is  observed,  which  may  indicate  an  actual  de- 
crease in  the  digestibility  of  the  hay.  The  oats  used  in 
Wolff's  experiments  had  a  considerably  narrower  nutritive 
ratio  (1  :  5.16)  than  those  used  by  Hofmeister  &  Haubner, 
(1  :  T.07),  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  slightly  smaller 
digestibility  in  the  latter  case,  as  well  as  its  decrease  in  the 
third  experiment,  is  due  to  this  cause. 

The  digestion  coefficients  of  the  other  constituents  of 
the  oats,  except  those  of  crude  fibre,  whose  digestibility 
generally  shows  considerable  variations  in  all  the  grains, 
were  nearly  accordant  in  all  the  experiments. 

The  recent  comparative  experiments  on  the  horse  and 
sheep,  made  at  Ilohenheim,  and  to  which  reference  has 
,more  than  once  been  made,  included  determinations  of  the 
digestibility  of  oats,  maize,  and  beans,  when  fed  with 
coarse  fodder.  In  no  case  was  any  noticeable  influence  of 
these  feeding-stuffs  on  the  digestibility  of  the  coarse  fod- 
der observed. 

Experiments  in  Weende  by  E.  Schulze  &  Marcker  * 
seem  to  indicate  that  when  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  grain 
or  of  the  whole  ration  is  wide  (1 :  8-10),  the  digestibility 
of  the  coarse  fodder  may  be  diminished.  We  shall  pres- 
ently see  that  feeding-stuffs  rich  in  carbhydrates,  especially 
roots,  decrease  the  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder.  Grain 
with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :  10,  like  that  used  in  Weende, 
begins  to  approach  roots  in  composition,  and  may  produce 
a  similar  effect ;  but  we  may  safely  say  that  grain  of  good 
quality  (nutritive  ratio  1:5-6)  produces  no  decrease  in  the 
digestibility  of  coarse  fodder. 

*  Jour.  f.  Landwirthschaft,  1875,  163. 


280  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Effect  of  Carbhydrates. — All  investigation  goes  to 
show  that  increasing  the  protein  of  a  ration  has  no  ten- 
dency to  diminish  the  digestibility  of  the  latter,  but  rather 
to  increase  it. 

The  carbhydrates,  on  the  contrary,  when  added  in  large 
quantities  to  a  ration,  depress  the  digestibility  of  the  crude 
fibre,  and  especially  of  the  protein,  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent. This  has  been  observed  in  numerous  experiments  on 
oxen,  cows,  sheep,  and  goats,  both  when  pure  carbhydrates 
were  fed  and  when  fodders  containing  large  amounts  of 
these  substances  were  used. 

Starch. — In  the  earlier  Weende  experiments  this  effect 
of  starch  on  the  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder  was  observed, 
and  the  observation  has  been  fully  confirmed  in  later  in- 
vestigations. 

Experiments  of  this  sort  have  the  advantage  over 
many  digestion  experiments  that  it  is  possible  to  ascertain 
whether  or  not  the  starch  is  entirely  digested.  This  sub- 
stance is  free  fi'om  protein,  and  hence  any  decrease  in  the 
dit'-estibility  of  the  latter  must  fall  exclusively  on  the  rest 
of  the  fodder.  The  same  is  true  of  the  crude  fibre  and 
fat,  while  as  regards  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  it  is  easy  to 
determine,  by  a  microscopic  examination  of  the  excrements, 
whether  any  of  the  starch  has  escaped  digestion.  The  re- 
sults, therefore,  possess  no  ambiguity. 

The  following  table  contains  a  summary  of  the  results 
of  experiments  by  Henneberg  &  Stohmann,  E.  Schulze  & 
Marcker,  Stohmann,  and  Wolff,  compiled  from  Wolff.* 
The  first  column  contains  the  name  of  the  experimenter  ; 
the  second,  the  amount  of  starch  fed,  expressed  in  per 
cent,  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  remaining  fodder  ;  the  third 


Bmahrung  Landw.  Nutzthiere,"  pp.  139-145. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


281 


shows  the  character  of  the  other  fodder ;  the  fourth  and 
fifth  express  the  decrease  in  the  digestibility  of  the  protein 
and  crude  fibre  in  per  cent,  of  the  quantity  of  each  which 
was  digested  when  the  starch  was  withheld. 


Deckeasb  in  Di- 

No 

Authority. 

Starch  in 
per  cent, 
of  other 
fodder. 

Fodder,  exclusive 
of  starch. 

gestibility  OF 

Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Crude 

fibre. 

Per  cent. 

1.... 
2.... 
3... 

Henneberg  &  Stohmann. 

15 

18 
29 

r 

Clover-hay,    | 
y    straw,  and    -j 
1         beans. 

7 
11 
21 

6 

7 
15 

4.... 
5.... 

"            "            " 

9 
9 

I    Same  with    j 
^  more  beans,   j 

3 

4 

4 
2 

6.... 

Schulze  &  Miircker. 

25 

Hay. 

41 

10 

7.... 

u            »         .. 

25 

Hay  and  beans. 

20 

13 

8.... 

stohmann. 

15 

Hay. 

12 

12 

9.... 

" 

69 

44 

7 

10.... 

" 

15 

Hay  and  oil-cake. 

9 

10 

n.... 

Wolff  (experiments  on  hogs). 

15 

Barley. 

0 

12.... 

"                "                     " 

31 

" 

11 

Two  things  are  shown  by  this  table :  first,  the  greater 
the  amount  of  starch  which  is  added  to  a  ration,  the  more 
is  the  digestibility  of  the  protein  and  crude  fibre  decreased, 
e.  g.,  in  experiments  1,  2  and  3,  or  8  and  9 ;  second,  the 
richer  the  original  ration  is  in  protein,  the  less  is  the  de- 
pression caused  by  a  given  quantity  of  starch,  e.  ^.,  Experi- 
ments 6  and  7. 

But  this  amounts  to  saying  that  the  protein  and  crude 
fibre  of  a  ration  are  better  digested  the  narrower  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  the  latter,  a  fact  which,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, we  have  already  noticed  in  the  case  of  hay,  and 


282  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

which  Stohmann  has  made  the  basis  of  his  formula  (p. 
256)  for  calculating  the  digestibility  of  the  protein  of  a 
ration  from  its  chemical  composition.  A  large  number  of 
results  seem  to  indicate  strongly  that  this  is  a  general  law, 
of  which  the  experiments  cited  above  are  only  special 
cases,  and  that  the  non-nitrogenous  matters  of  hay,  e.  g.,  as 
truly  depress  the  digestibility  of  its  protein  and  fibre  as  does 
the  addition  of  starch.  The  only  difference  is  that  we  can- 
not abstract  the  non-nitrogenous  matters  from  the  hay  and 
observe  the  digestibility  of  the  other  constituents,  but 
must  determine  the  digestibility  of  the  hay  as  a  whole. 

The  statement  that  starch  decreases  the  digestibihty  of 
other  fodder,  then,  is  simply  a  practically  convenient  way 
of  stating  the  result  in  this  particular  case. 

Sugar. — ]^ot  many  expermients  on  the  influence  of 
sugar  on  the  digestibility  of  rations  have  been  made ;  but 
those  which  have  been  executed  show,  as  was  to  be  ex- 
pected, that  widening  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  ration  by 
means  of  sugar  produces  essentially  the  same  result  as 
when  effected  by  starch.  The  decrease  in  the  digestibility 
appears  to  be  rather  smaller,  however. 

Effect  on  Digestibility  of  Nitrogen-free  Extract. 
— Thus  far  we  have  considered  chiefly  the  effect  of 
easily  digestible  carbhydrates  on  the  digestibility  of  pro- 
tein and  fibre.  In  regard  to  the  nitrogen-free  extract  and 
the  fat  of  the  coarse  fodder,  it  may  be  said  that  the  diges- 
tibility of  these  constituents  is  not  essentially  decreased  by 
starch  or  sugar  so  long  as  the  latter  are  completely  di- 
gested. 

Frequently,  however,  the  starch  or  sugar  not  only  dimi- 
nishes the  digestibility  of  the  protein  and  fibre,  but  escapes 
digestion  itself  to  a  not  inconsiderable  extent,  thus  causing 
a  double  loss.     We  have  here  another  indication  of  the 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  283 

necessity  of  observing  a  medium  nutritive  ratio  in  the 
fodder  of  farm  animals. 

Indeed,  a  too-wide  nutritive  ratio  may  cause  more  waste 
than  a  too-narrow  one.  In  the  former  case  the  protein 
consumption  is,  as  we  learned  in  Part  I.,  needlessly  in- 
creased, but  the  nitrogen  of  this  protein  is  excreted  in  the 
urine,  and  has  its  value  in  the  manure.  In  the  second 
case,  a  too-wide  nutritive  ratio  also  causes  a  waste  of  pro- 
tein by  decreasing  its  digestibility,  but  it  also  causes  some 
of  the  starch  to  pass  through  the  body  without  being  put 
to  any  use,  while  as  manure  the  latter  is  absolutely  value- 
less, containing  only  elements  of  which  the  atmosphere 
offers  an  inexhaustible  supply  to  plants. 

Roots. — It  will  not  often  be  the  case  in  practice  that 
pure  starch  or  sugar  is  fed,  but  potatoes  and  roots,  which 
are  especially  rich  in  carbhydrates  or  pectin  substances, 
must  exert  a  sunilar  influence  on  the  digestibility  of  coarse 
fodder.  It  is  to  be  expected,  however,  that  the  resulting 
depression  will  be  smaller  than  that  caused  by  pure 
carbhydrates,  since  the  above-named  fodders  contain,  be- 
sides starch  and  sugar  (or  pectin),  other  substances,  and 
especially  more  or  less  albuminoids. 

The  effect  of  roots  aixl  potatoes  on  the  digestibility  of  a 
ration  has  been  investigated  chiefly  at  the  Hohenheim  Ex- 
periment Station,  where  a  large  number  of  experiments  on 
sheep  have  been  executed.* 

In  calculating  the  results  of  these  experiments  the  pota- 
toes and  roots  have  been  considered  as  wholly  digestible, 
and  any  decrease  in  the  digestibility  of  the  ration  is  con- 
sidered as  affecting  exclusively  the  remaining  fodder.    The 


*  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VIII.,  I.   Supplement,  p,  123.     Compare  also 
Wolff's  "Ernahrung  Landw.  Nutzthiere,"  pp.  158-175. 


284 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


grounds  which  justify  this  assumption  are  two :  first,  it  is 
known  that  these  feeding-stuffs  are  very  completely  if  not 
wholly  digested,  and  that  large  amounts  of  starch  or  sugar 
do  decrease  the  digestibility  of  a  ration ;  second,  with  our 
present  knowledge  this  method  of  expressing  the  results  is 
the  most  convenient  for  practical  purposes.  It  should 
never  be  forgotten  that  investigations  of  this  sort  are  of  a 
practical  and  not  a  physiological  nature.  In  feeding,  it  is 
not  the  digestibility  of  one  feeding-stuff  so  much  as  that  of 
the  whole  ration  which  is  of  importance,  and  hence  that 
method  of  expressing  the  results  of  digestion  experiments 
is  best  which  attains  this  end  by  the  simplest  method  con- 
sistent wdth  accuracy.  Probably  roots  are  not  wholly 
digestible,  but  at  present  it  is  not  possible  to  calculate  di- 
gestion coefficients  for  them  as  has  been  done  for  the  other 
bye-fodders. 

Calculated  on  this  basis,  these  experiments  yielded,  in 
general,  the  same  results  as  those  on  the  feeding  of  starch 
and  sugar,  viz. :  that  the  depression  of  the  digestibility  was 
greater,  the  larger  the  amount  of  the  bye-fodder  and  the 
wider  the  nutritive  ratio.  The  following  table  by  Wolff, 
in  which  the  results  are  grouped  according  to  the  propor- 


Depbession 

.— Peb  cent. 

Dry  matter  of  bye- 

fodaer  in  per  cent,  of 

coarse  fodder. 

Protein. 

NitroRen-free  extract. 

Organic  substance. 

Potatoes. 

Roots. 

Potatoes, 

Roots. 

Potatoes. 

Roots. 

12  to  18 

7.3 

4.0 

5.3 

2.2 

4.4 

3.0 

22  to  35 

13.9 

7.1 

6.5 

4.7 

7.5 

5.9 

44  to  54 

27.8 

11.9 

14.7 

6.8 

17.1 

9.3 

64  to  95 

40.2 

22.3 

13.9 

10.2 

17.5 

11.7 

MANUAL  OF  OAT^Jl^^KHTOSf fe^^^^  *  285 


tion  of  bye-fodder,  will  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  extent 
of  the  depression.  The  numbers  denote  the  decrease  in 
the  digestibility  of  the  protein,  nitrogen-free  extract,  and 
total  organic  matter,  under  the  influence  respectively  of 
roots  and  potatoes.  The  depression  is  calculated  in  per- 
centages of  the  amounts  of  the  several  nutrients  digested 
when  the  bye-fodder  was  withheld. 

The  decrease  in  the  digestibility  of  the  non-nitrogenous 
ingredients  caused  by  any  amount  of  roots  or  potatoes  likely 
to  be  fed  in  practice  is  so  small  that  we  may  neglect  it,  and 
consider  only  the  effect  on  the  protein. 

From  the  above  numbers,  Wolff  concludes  that  we  can 
assume  that,  when  the  dry  matter  of  the  bye-fodder  of 
ruminants  amounts  to  ^,  i,  i,  and  finally  equals  that  of 
the  coarse  fodder,  the  digestibility  of  the  crude  protein  of 
the  latter  is  decreased  by  about  7,  14,  28,  and  40  per  cent, 
if  the  bye-fodder  consists  of  potatoes,  and  by  about  half 
as  much  if  it  consists  of  roots. 

It  is  plain,  however,  that  these  numbers  can  be  but  ap- 
proximations, since,  in  general,  the  decrease  of  the  digesti- 
bility varies  with  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  whole  ration. 
It  seems  probable  that,  in  practice,  the  most  satisfactory 
method  would  be  to  use  these  figures  as  a  basis  for  com- 
pounding a  ration,  and  then  to  compute  the  digestibility 
of  the  total  crude  protein  by  means  of  Stohmann's  for- 
mula (p.  256).  In  cases  of  doubt,  it  is  well  to  err  in  giv- 
ing slightly  too  much  rather  than  too  little  protein,  not  only 
for  the  sake  of  ensuring  the  digestion  of  the  non-nitroge- 
nous nutrients  but  to  ensure  also  a  sufficient  supply  of  the 
important  albuminoids  to  the  animal. 

For  siijjiilar  reasons  it  is  w^ell,  when  feeding  large  quan- 
tities of  roots  along  with  hay  or  straw,  to  add  to  the  ra- 
tion a  small  amount  of  some  highly  nitrogenous  bye-fod- 


286  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

der,  like  oil  cake,  in  order  to  narrow  tlie  nutritive  ratio 
and  ensure  as  complete  a  digestion  as  possible,  both  of  the 
nitrogenous  and  the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients. 

As  noted,  all  the  above  experiments  were  made  on  sheep, 
and  their  results  are  applicable,  in  the  first  place,  to  rumi- 
nants. A  similar  depression  in  the  digestibility  of  the 
crude  protein  in  the  food  of  the  hog  is  produced  bj  starch, 
and  presumably  by  roots,  while  the  digestibility  of  the  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients  seems  little  or  not  at  all  affected. 

Finally,  it  should  be  added  that  the  digestibility  of  pota- 
toes, wdien  fed  exclusively  to  hogs,  has  been  the  subject  of 
investigation  at  the  Experiment  Stations  of  Proskau  and 
riohenheim.  The  results  of  these  experiments  are  inclu- 
ded in  Table  II.  of  the  Appendix. 

Effect  of  Fat. — Experiments  on  the  effect  of  the  ad- 
dition of  small  amounts  of  fat  or  oil  to  a  ration  on  the 
digestibility  of  the  constituents  of  coarse  fodder  have 
hitherto  given  very  variable  and  more  or  less  discordant 
results. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  in  high  feeding,  intended  to 
cause  a  rapid  production,  the  fat  of  the  ration  is  of  im- 
portance, and  has  considerable  influence  on  the  nutritive 
effect,  but  the  weight  of  evidence  goes  to  show  that  the 
digestibility  of  the  various  nutrients  is  not  essentially  al- 
tered by  an  addition  of  fat  to  the  fodder. 

Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  give  ruminating 
animals  too  much  fat,  since  it  may  easily  cause  a  gradual 
loss  of  appetite  and  even  serious  disturbances  of  diges- 
tion. It  is  to  be  noted  that  such  an  injurious  eifect  is 
much  less  noticeable  when  the  fat  forms  an  actual  con- 
stituent of  the  fodder,  as,  e.  g.^  in  oil  cake,  etc.,  than  when 
pure  fat  is  mixed  with  the  fodder. 

This  is  illustrated  by  some  Ilohenheim  experiments  on 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING.  287 

sheep.  The  fodder  was  tolerably  i-ich  in  protein,  and  by 
the  gradual  addition  of  increasing  quantities  of  palm-nut 
meal  and  flaxseed  the  amount  of  fat  per  day  and  head  was 
increased  finally  to  75  and  100  grammes,  wliile  tlie  quantity 
of  the  remaining  nutrients  was  scarcely  altered.  The  di- 
gestibility of  the  fodder  was  not  affected  at  all,  either 
favorably  or  unfavorably,  and  the  health  of  the  animal  did 
not  suffer. 

Effect  of  Salt. — That  salt  plays  an  important  part  in 
the  nourishment  of  the  animal  organism,  and  is  for  the 
herbivora,  even  more  than  for  the  carnivora,  an  indis- 
pensable food,  has  been  already  explained.  Upon  the 
digestibility  of  the  fodder,  however,  it  seems  to  exert  no 
considerable  influence  in  any  way.  The  result  of  direct 
experiments  in  Salzmiinde,  Hohenheim,  Dresden,  and 
Proskau,  has  been  to  show  sometimes  an  apparent  de- 
crease, and  sometimes  an  apparent  increase,  of  digestibility 
as  a  result  of  the  feeding  of  salt. 

Generally,  however,  under  wholly  normal  conditions, 
salt  has  shown  itself  without  influence  in  this  respect. 

The  greater  palatability  of  a  fodder,  and  the  larger 
amount  consequently  eaten  as  a  result  of  salting,  is  not  to 
be  confounded  with  its  percentage  digestibility,  which,  as 
we  have  seen  (p.  259),  is  in  general  little  affected  by  the 
quantity  eaten,  especially  of  coaj'se  fodder. 

Besides  salt,  other  inorganic  matters  are  sometimes  fed, 
especially  phosphate  of  lime.  This  is  not  the  place  to  con- 
sider the  necessity  of  such  a  procedure,  nor  its  effects  on 
the  nutrition  of  the  animal.  Here  it  need  only  be  said 
that,  like  salt,  they  appear  to  exert  no  effect  on  the  digest- 
ibility of  the  organic  nutrients. 


CHAPTER  n. 

THE  COARSE  FODDERS. 

In  the  preceding  chapter,  we  have  considered,  in  a  gen- 
eral way,  the  digestibility,  and  incidentally  some  of  the 
other  properties,  of  the  more  common  classes  of  feeding- 
stuffs.  We  now  proceed,  in  this  and  the  following  chap- 
ters, to  take  np  the  chief  members  of  these  classes  for  a 
more  detailed  study.  In  this  we  shall  regard  the  feeding- 
stuffs  chiefly  as  sources  of  the  various  imtrients — that  is, 
we  shall  look  at  them  from  a  chemical  standpomt,  and 
make  their  composition  the  prominent  point. 

The  greater  or  less  adaptability  of  particular  fodders  to 
particular  kinds  of  animals  we  shall  leave  entirely  out  of 
account,  simply  because  it  is  as  yet  entirely  a  matter  of 
practical  observation  and  experience. 

The  subject  of  the  cultivation  of  fodder  plants,  too,  is 
outside  the  scope  of  tliis  work,  and  will  only  be  alluded  to 
incidentally,  in  so  far  as  the  different  methods  of  cultivation 
and  manuring  may  influence  the  composition  or  digestibil- 
ity of  the  resulting  crop. 

§  1.  Meadow  Hay,  Rowew,  and  Pasture  Grass. 

Variable  Composition. — While  the  seeds  of  the  same 
plant,  and  hence  their  bye-products,  are  generally  quite 
constant  in  their  chemical  composition  and  nutritive  value, 
it  is  characteristic  of  the  stems  and  leaves,  which  constitute 
what  we  call  coarse  fodder  or  forage,  that  they  vary  very 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  289 

considerably  in  composition,  according  to  the  circumstances 
under  wliich  they  grow,  their  state  of  maturity,  etc.  It 
is,  therefore,  of  the  highest  importance  to  learn  how  these 
various  factors  affect  the  value  of  a  fodder.  In  the  follow- 
ing paragraphs  we  shall  consider  their  influence  on  the 
composition  of  hay,  premising  that  it  is  essentially  the 
same  on  all  coarse  fodders. 

Supply  of  Plant  Food. — It  is  a  well-established  fact 
that  the  natural  quality  and  the  fertility  of  a  soil  have  a 
very  considerable  influence  on  the  chemical  composition 
of  the  crop,  especially  of  coarse  fodder. 

This  influence  is  particularly  noticeable  on  the  nitrogen- 
ous constituents  of  the  fodder.  According  to  analyses  made 
in  Tharand,  the  hay  from  a  manured  meadow  contained  12 
per  cent,  of  protein,  that  from  an  unmanured  one  only  9 
per  cent.  Still  greater  differences  often  show  themselves 
when  dark  green,  "  rank  "  plants  are  compared  with  pale 
yellowish-green  ones  of  the  same  kind,  occurring  in  the 
same  field,  and  of  the  same  age. 

This  was  observed,  e.  g.,  in  investigations  made  in 
Mockern.  Eank  plants  of  oats,  barley,  wheat,  and  rye 
contained  at  the  beginning  of  flowering  16.4  per  cent,  of 
protein  in  the  dry  matter,  while  weaker  plants  contained 
only  10.4  per  cent. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  the  low  percentage  of  crude 
protein  which  seems  to  be  characteristic  of  American,  or 
at  least  of  New  England,  hay,  as  compared  with  that  raised 
in  Germany  and  Austria  (compare  '' Eeport  Conn.  Ag'l 
Expt.  Station,"  1879,  pp.  79-83),  is  owing  to  its  having 
been  raised  on  poorer  soils. 

Some  analyses  made  by  Weiske  &  Wildt,*  in  Proskau^ 

*  Jahresber.  Agr.  Chera.,  XITI.,  III.,  9. 
13 


290 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


are  of  interest  in  this  connection.  The  fodder  grew  on  a 
heavy  clay  soil,  and  consisted,  for  the  most  part,  of  timothy 
{P  Mew  n  J)  rate  use),  with  a  slight  admixture  of  red  clover. 
One  sample  (I.)  came  from  a  part  of  the  field  which  was 
in  an  ordinary  state  of  fertility ;  the  other  (11.)  was  taken 
from  spots  where  the  excrement  and  urine  of  the  grazing 
animals  had  caused  an  especially  luxuriant  growth.  The 
two  samples  had  the  following  composition  in  the  water 
free  state: 


Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Crude 

fibre. 

Per  cent. 

Fat. 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen- 
free  extract. 
Per  cent. 

Ash. 
Per  cent. 

L 

11.0 
20.3 

22.5 
26.6 

4.2 

4.8 

56.3 
41.3 

6.0 

II 

7.0 

The  differences  are  very  considerable,  especially  in  the 
amount  of  protein  and  nitrogen-free  extract. 

It  is  noticeable  that  the  greatly  increased  percentage  of 
protein  in  II.  is  accompanied  by  a  not  inconsiderable  in- 
crease in  the  quantity  of  crude  fibre,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  digestibility  of  the  protein  is  most  probably 
diminished.  According  to  practical  experience,  a  very 
rank  fodder,  such  as  grows  on  heavily-manured  land,  and 
especially  in  wet  and  shady  places  or  in  wet  seasons,  is 
not  especially  nutritious,  even  though  it  contains  much 
crude  protein.  This  may  be  partly  because  the  protein  is 
less  digestible  and  partly  because  the  bulk  and  coarseness 
of  the  fodder  render  it  unpalatable.  Moreover,  high  ma- 
nuring, especially  with  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  tends  to  in- 
crease the  proportion  of  "non-protein,"  which  is  less 
valuable,  in  some  respects  at  least,  than  true  protein. 

It  would  be  very  interesting  to  make  systematic  diges- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING.  291 

tion  experiments  with  the  different  qualities  of  fodder 
obtainable  by  different  manuring  of  the  same  soil,  in  order 
to  determine  the  actual  practical  value  of  high  manuring 
for  fodder  crops.     As  yet  this  has  not  been  done. 

Method  of  Curing. — The  method  of  curing  almost 
universally  adopted  in  this  country  is  drying.  Evidently^ 
this  alone  cannot  change  the  composition  of  the  dry  mat- 
ter of  the  fodder,  and  we  have  seen  that  the  digestibility 
is  in  no  essential  degree  affected  when  the  drying  is  care- 
fully conducted. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  already  stated  that  in 
the  preparation  and  handling  of  hay,  as  commonly  con- 
ducted, more  or  less  loss  of  substance  is  unavoidable,  and 
that  this  loss  consists  of  the  most  nutritious  parts  of  the 
plants.  As  a  result,  both  the  composition  and  digestibility 
of  the  hay  suffer  (compare  p.  306). 

Obviously,  it  is  desirable  to  reduce  this  loss  to  the  mini- 
mum. Hence  all  methods  and  appliances  which  diminish 
the  amount  of  handling  which  the  hay  must  receive,  espe- 
cially when  it  is  nearly  dry,  tend  to  improve  the  quality 
of  the  product.  So,  too,  it  is  desirable  to  dry  the  grass  as 
little  as  is  consistent  w^itli  the  object  of  curing,  viz.,  to 
ensure  the  keeping  of  the  fodder,  since  the  dryer  and  more 
brittle  it  becomes,  the  greater  is  the  loss  by  handling. 

In  the  process  of  "  ensilage,"  long  practiced  in  Europe 
and  lately  introduced  into  this  countrj^,  these  losses  are 
largely  avoided,  the  fodder  being  placed  in  the  silo  while 
still  green.  On  the  other  hand,  the  process  of  fermenta- 
tion w^hich  the  fodder  undergoes  causes  losses  in  other 
ways.  In  this  country  ensilage  has  been  chiefly  recom- 
mended for  maize,  and  we  shall  consider  it  more  fully  in 
that  connection. 

Damage  by  Rain. — In  our  hot  and  dry  summers,  in 


292 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


which  haj  can  usually  be  sufficiently  cured  in  a  single  day, 
hay  is  far  less  exposed  to  damage  from  rain  than  is  the 
case  in  the  moist  climate  of  Germany  and  England.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  impossible  to  altogether  avoid  it,  and  it 
is  therefore  of  interest  to  know  its  effects  on  the  hay. 

Both  analysis  and  digestion  experiments  confirm  the 
common  observation  that  hay  which  has  been  wet  is  dim- 
mished  in  value.  A  loss  of  crude  protein  and  nitrogen-free 
extract,  and  a  relative  increase  in  the  crude  fibre,  are  gen- 
erally observed,  combined  with  a  decreased  digestibility. 

Stage  of  Growth. — As  has  been  already  pointed  out 
(p.  33),  plants  while  still  young  and  rapidly  growing  con- 
tain relatively  more  protein  and  less  fibre  than  more  ma- 
ture ones.  Consequently,  early-cut  fodder  must,  other 
things  being  equal,  be  of  better  quality  than  late-cut.  This 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  analyses,  executed  at 
Hohenheim,*  of  hay  cut  at  three  different  times  from  the 
same  meadow : 

Water-free  Substance. 


Cut. 

Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Crude  fibre. 
Per  cent. 

Fat. 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen- 
free  extract. 
Per  cent. 

Ash. 
Per  cent. 

May  14,  1877 

June  9,       " 

"26,       " 

18.97 

11.16 

8.46 

24.70 

34.88 
38.15 

3.42 
2.74 
2.71 

43.91 
43.27 
43.34 

9.50 
7.95 
7.34 

The  table  shows  a  decrease  of  crude  protein  and  an  in- 
crease of  crude  fibre,  both  of  which  impair  the  quality  of 
the  fodder. 

Furthermore,  we  have  seen  (p.  263)  that  early-cut  fodder, 


*  Landw.  Jahrbuclier,  VIII. ,  I.  Supplement,  54. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


29; 


like  that  of  May  14tli,  is  much  more  digestible  than  that 
cut  later,  and  the  real  value  of  a  fodder  is,  of  course, 
measured  by  the  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  it  contains. 
In  the  above  case  100  pounds  of  each  fodder  contained  the 
following  amounts  of  digestible  matters  : 


Cut. 

Digestible 

organic 

substance. 

Pounds. 

Digestible 
protein, 
rounds. 

Digestible 

crude   fibre. 

Pounds. 

Digestible 

fat. 
Pounds. 

Digestible 
nitrogen- 
free  extract. 
Pounds. 

May  14th 

June  9th 

"  26th 

69.20 
59.31 
53.45 

13.85 
8.04 
4.74 

19.76 
23.03 
23.27 

2.22 
1.42 
1.17 

83  37 
26.83 
24.27 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  total  quantity  of  digestible  mat- 
ters and  the  amount  of  digestible  protein,  the  most  valu- 
able of  the  nutrients,  furnished  by  100  pounds  of  the 
early-cut  hay  is  considerably  greater  than  that  yielded  by 
the  same  weight  of  that  cut  later.  Many  more  examples 
of  the  same  fact  might  be  adduced  were  it  needful. 

Early  or  Late  Cutting. — The  question  of  early  or  late 
cutting  is  one  that  is  frequently  raised,  and  the  considera- 
tions just  adduced  enable  us  to  indicate,  to  some  extent,  its 
answer.  Three  elements  enter  into  the  problem,  viz.,  the 
quality  of  the  fodder,  its  quantity,  and  the  amount  of  labor 
expended  upon  it. 

As  just  illustrated,  young  plants  are  relatively  richer  in 
protein  and  poorer  in  crude  fibre  than  old  ones,  and  there- 
fore more  nutritious  ;  so  that  if  the  only  question  were  the 
quality  of  the  fodder,  the  best  results  would  be  obtained  by 
cutting  as  early  as  practicable. 

But  we  have  to  consider  not  only  the  quality  of  the  fod- 
der but  the  quantity  of  it  which  we  can  obtain  from  a  given 
area,  and  this  complicates  the  question  somewhat. 


394  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

In  the  young  plant  protein  is  formed  rapidly,  but  as  it. 
grows  older  the  vital  activities  are  directed  more  to  the 
translocation  of  protein  already  present  than  to  the  pro- 
duction of  new.  This  is  especially  the  case  after  blossom- 
ing, when  the  protein  before  present  in  the  stems  and 
leaves  is  transferred  to  the  seeds  and  there  stored  away. 
At  the  same  time  a  continual  formation  of  woody  fibre 
goes  on,  so  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  increase  in  weight 
of  plants  after  a  certain  point  is  due  to  this  substance,  and  al- 
though the  absolute  quantity  of  protein  is  not  decreased,  its 
percentage  in  the  whole  mass  of  the  plant  is.  When  crops 
are  raised  for  fodder,  the  object  generally  is  to  produce  the 
greatest  possible  amount  of  digest Ihle  nutrients  per  acre. 
If  it  were  a  question  simply  of  producing  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  pounds  of  nutrients,  digestible  or  indigestible,  per 
acre,  if  we  w^ere  confined  to  one  crop  in  a  season,  we  should 
let  that  stand  as  long  as  possible,  since  we  have  no  evidence 
that  there  is  any  loss  of  organic  matter  during  ripening. 
But  supposing,  for  the  present,  that  only  one  crop  is  raised 
in  a  season,  we  have  seen  that  the  older  plants  become,  the 
less  digestible  they  are.  For  this  reason,  though  we  might 
get  a  greater  quantity  of  nutrients  per  acre  by  letting  a 
year's  crop,  e.  </.,  stand  till  fully  ripe,  we  should  probably 
lose  more  in  digestibility  than  we  gained  in  amount. 

Furthermore,  as  w^e  have  just  seen,  while  any  crop  is 
ripening  a  large  part  of  the  protein  and  starch  passes  from 
the  leaves  and  stem  to  the  seeds,  leaving  the  former  rela- 
tively poor  and  woody.  Now,  in  the  case  of  grass,  the 
seeds  are  nearly  worthless  for  fodder,  since  they  are  so 
small  as  to  escape  mastication,  while  whole  seeds  are  seldom 
digested,  being  protected  by  their  integuments  from  the 
action  of  the  digestive  fluids.  Moreover,  they  are  easily 
lost  in  curing,  so  that  these  two  circumstances  combined 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


295 


cause  the  loss  of  practically  all  tlie  nutrients  contained 
in  the  seeds.  The  grasses  belong  to  the  same  order  of 
plants  as  the  grains,  and  hay  made  from  fully  ripe  grass  is 
essentially  straw.  No  farmer  would  expect  to  obtain  nu- 
tritious fodder  from  a  field  of  ripe  oats,  if  he  neglected  the 
seeds  and  collected  only  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  plants  ; 
yet  this  is  exactly  what  is  done  of  necessity  when  grass  is 
allowed  to  ripen  before  cutting.  The  straw  is  collected, 
while  the  seeds,  which  contain  most  of  the  valuable  mate- 
rial, unavoidably  escape. 

If  only  one  crop  is  to  be  obtained,  probably  the  best 
time  for  cutting  is  usually  when  the  plants  are  just  begin- 
ning to  blossom.  At  this  time  a  larger  crop  is  obtained 
than  if  cut  earlier,  while  the  digestibility  is  not  seriously 
impaired.  It  is  during  the  ripening  of  the  seed  that  the 
most  extensive  changes  in  this  respect  go  on.  If  a  high 
nutritive  value  is  desired  rather  than  quantity,  of  course  a 
still  earlier  harvest  would  be  in  place. 

In  the  case  of  grass,  it  is  a  further  advantage  of  season- 
able cutting  that  a  second  crop  may  be  obtained,  and  often 
by  frequent  successive  cuttings  a  very  considerable  amount 
of  highly  nutritious  fodder  may  be  obtained.  For  example, 
the  crop  of  a  meadow  in  Hohenheim  was  obtained  from 
one-half  at  a  single  cut,  from  the  other  in  two.  The  fol- 
lowing were  the  results : 


Percentage 
of  protein. 

Total 
protein. 
Pounds. 

Total  dry 
matter. 
Pounds. 

16.3 
24.4 

434 
668 

2,662 

Two  cuts 

8,274 

These  numbers  speak  most  decidedly  in  favor  of  early 
cutting.     Where  the  fodder  was  cut  twice,  not  only  was 


296 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


the  quality  far  better,  as  shown  by  the  percentage  of  pro^ 
tein,  but  the  absolute  quantity  both  of  protein  and  of  dry 
matter  per  acre  was  nearly  one-half  greater.  When  we 
take  into  account  the  greater  digestibility  of  the  young 
hay,  the  gain  becomes  still  larger.  Numerous  similar  ex- 
periments have  been  made  with  clover,  and  these  will  be 
mentioned  in  the  next  section.  One  made  by  Weiske,  in 
Proskau,"^  on  a  mixture  of  grass  and  clover,  may  be  de 
scribed  here.  It  is  of  especial  interest  because  the  digest- 
ibility of  the  fodder  was  determined  by  direct  experiments 
on  sheep. 

A  field  was  sown  with  a  mixture  of  clover  and  grass 
seed,  and  divided  into  two  equal  portions. 

In  the  time  from  April  24:th  to  August  24:th,  the  young 
vegetation  on  one  half  of  the  field  was  plucked  by  hand 
thirteen  times,  in  imitation  of  the  effects  of  pasturage, 
wddle  the  other  half  was  mown  twice. 

The  following  table  gives  in  pounds  per  Prussian  Mor- 
gen,  first,  the  total  yield  of  the  several  nutrients,  and  sec- 
ond, the  amounts  of  digestible  nutrients  obtained. 

Total  Yield. 


Plucked 

Mown  twice. 


Dry 

substance, 
Lbs. 


.     I 


2,122 
3,392 


Protein. 
Lbs. 

575 

485 


Crude  fibre. 
Lbs. 


355 

899 


Nitrogen-free 

extract, 

and  fat. 

Lbs. 


1,002 
1,797 


Digestible. 

Plucked 

Mown  twice 

1,457              450 
2,016              307 

239 

444 

768 
1,264 

♦  Wolff,  ''  Emahrung  Landw.  Nutzthiere,"  p.  108. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


297 


The  composition  of  the  water-free  substance  of  the  two 
fodders  was : 


Plucked. 

Mown  twice. 

Protein 

37.07 
16.74 

5.09 
42.09 

9.01 

13.42 

Crude  fibre 

27.14 

Fat 

3.69 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

49.69 

Ash 

6.06 

In  this  experiment  the  frequent  cutting  gave  a  very  rich 
fodder,  and,  at  the  same  time,  yielded  absolutely  more  di- 
gestible protein  and  about  40  per  cent,  less  non-nitrogenous 
digestible  matters  per  acre. 

All  these  results  indicate  that  the  richest  fodder  and 
the  largest  yield  of  digestible  matters  per  acre  may  be  ob- 
tained by  cutting  two  or  more  crops  of  comparatively 
young  grass  in  a  season,  rather  than  one  crop  of  over-ripe 
vegetation. 

In  practice,  however,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  length 
of  the  season,  the  cost  of  labor,  etc.,  have  to  be  considered, 
and  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  no  general  rules  can  be 
given.  The  chief  advantage  of  early  cutting  lies  in  the 
better  quality  of  the  resulting  fodder.  Late  cutting,  if 
not  too  late,  yields  a  greater  number  of  pounds  of  digest- 
ible non-nitrogenous  nutrients  per  acre  than  early  cutting, 
but  the  resulting  fodder  is  deficient  in  albuminoids  and  is 
usually  not  suitable  for  exclusive  feeding.  Obviously,  how- 
ever, circumstances  may  be  such  as  to  render  it  more  eco- 
nomical to  supplement  the  poor  hay  obtained  by  late  cut- 
ting by  nitrogenous  bye-fodders  than  to  be  at  the  expense 
of  cutting  two  or  more  crops,  while  under  other  conditions 
13* 


298  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

the  opposite  course  may  be  advisable.  Such  being  the 
case,  each  farmer  must  strike  the  balance  for  himself 
between  quality,  quantity,  and  cost. 

Rowen. — It  is  evident  that  the  value  of  rowen  must  be 
very  variable,  according  to  the  soil,  the  time  at  which  the 
first  crop  was  taken  off,  etc.  It  is  generally  likely  to  be 
cut  at  a  comparatively  early  period  of  gi-owth,  and  then, 
if  properly  cured,  constitutes  an  excellent  fodder.  It  is, 
however,  more  liable  to  injury  from  wet  than  the  coarser 
hay  of  the  first  crop,  and  may  easily  suffer  considerable 
damage  in  this  way. 

Pasture  Grass. — The  high  nutritive  value  of  the  young 
grass  of  good  pastures  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  para- 
■graphs  (compare  the  analysis  on  p.  292).  The  question  of 
the  relative  advantages  of  pasturage  or  stall-feeding,  how- 
ever, is  a  purely  economical  one,  and  as  such  is  entirely 
outside  the  scope  of  this  work. 

Proportion  of  Non-Protein  in  Hay. — Recent  inves- 
tigations, especially  those  of  Kellner,  already  alluded  to  (p. 
37),  have  shown  that  a  comparatively  large  proportion  of 
the  nitrogenous  matters  of  hay  and  other  coarse  fodders 
is  not  albuminoids,  but  belongs  to  some  of  the  classes  of 
non-albuminoid  nitrogenous  matters  enumerated  on  page 
3^,  and  which  we  have  collectively  designated  as  non-pro- 
tein. In  thirty-one  samples  of  various  kinds  of  coarse 
fodder,  he  found  {]a)c.  cit.^  p.  2i5)  the  non-albuminoid  ni- 
trogen to  range  from  0.102  to  2.133  per  cent,  of  the  dry 
matter  of  the  fodder,  and  from  7.5  to  38.5  per  cent,  of  the 
total  nitrogen.  In  meadow  hay  the  range  was  0.102  to 
0.983  per  cent,  of  the  dry  substance,  and  7.5  to  34.8  per 
cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen.  In  nineteen  samples  of  hay 
examined  by  the  author,*  the  non-albuminoid  nitrogen  was 

*  Report  Conn.  Ag'l.  Expt.  Station,  1879,  p.  112. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  299 

found  to  be  from  0.09  to  0.46  per  cent,  of  the  air-dry  sub- 
stance (14.3  per  cent,  of  water),  and  from  8.93  to  24.36 
per  cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen,  the  average  being,  respect- 
ively, 0.21  and  16.70  per  cent.  According  to  Kellner's 
investigations,  most  of  the  non-albuminoid  nitrogen  exists 
in  the  form  of  amides. 

Although  the  amides,  as  we  have  seen,  are  easily  di- 
gested and  have  some  nutritive  value,  yet  they  cannot  be 
considered  equal  to  the  albuminoids,  and  it  is  clear  that 
the  large  amount  of  them  which  hay  sometimes  contains 
must  diminish  its  value. 

Non-py^otein  in  early-cut  Hay. — The  statements  made 
on  page  36  respecting  the  functions  of  amides  in  the  plant 
would  lead  us  to  expect  to  find  them  chiefly  in  those  plants 
or  parts  of  plants  where  growth  was  going  on,  while  in 
those  which  had  reached  their  full  development  we  should 
anticipate  finding  most  or  all  of  the  amides  reconverted 
into  albuminoids,  except  in  cases  where,  as  in  the  beet, 
they  act  as  a  reserve  of  nitrogenous  food.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  those  investigations  which  have  hitherto  been  made 
confirm,  in  the  main,  these  anticipations. 

Thus  Kellner's  results  show  that,  in  general,  the  pro- 
portion of  non-protein  is  greatest  in  the  hay  from  young 
plants,  and  decreases  as  the  latter  approach  ripeness.  An 
interesting  difference  was  observed  in  this  respect  between 
the  common  grasses  ( Gramhiece)  and  the  legumes  ;  in  the 
former  the  decrease  in  the  amount  of  non -protein  with 
approaching  ripeness  was  very  marked,  w^hile  in  the  latter 
it  was  much  less  noticeable.  The  former  are  plants  w^hich, 
after  flowering,  cease  to  assimilate  to  any  great  extent, 
while  the  latter,  along  with  the  formation  of  flower  and 
fi'uit,  continue  to  grow  and  assimilate  food,  and  thus  offei 
the  conditions  for  the  formation  of  amide  compounds. 


300 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


The  following  table  of  a  few  of  Kellner's  results,  giving 
the  proportions  of  total  and  non-albuminoid  nitrogen,  will 
serve  to  illustrate  these  facts : 


Total 
nitrogen. 
Percent.* 

Non-albuminoid 
nitrogen. 

Amide 

Per  cent.* 

Per  cent,  of 

total 

nitrogen. 

(Sach8.se"  8 
method. ) 
Per  cent.* 

Lucerne. 

1.  Cub  April?,  H  in.  high.  . 

6.922 

2.133 

30.5 

2.      "       "      12,  3^  in.  high. 

5.760 

2.042 

35.5 



3.  2d  cut, without  flower  buds. 

3.570 

1.183 

33.1 

1.025 

4.  Before  flowering,  18^  in. 
high 

2.474 

0.721 

29.1 

0.613 

5.  In  flower,  22^  in.  high. . . 

3.008 

0.729 

24.2 

0.687    * 

Red  Clover. 

1.  Cut  March  27,  H  in.  high. 

5.200 

1.958 

37.7 

2.     "    April  27,  2i  in.  high. 

3.974 

0.975 

24.5 

3.  In  full  flower 

2.244 

(16.5^ 

0.370 

Meadow  Hay,  1877. 

1.  Cut  May  14 

2  824 

0  983 

34  8 

0  893 

2.     "    June  9 

1.787 
1.354 

0.285 
0.102 

16.0 
7.5 

0.239 

3.     "      "     29 

0.033 

Kellner  also  shows  {loo.  cit,  p.  248)  that  hay  which  has 
been  heavily  manured,  like  that  whose  analysis  is  given 
on  page  290,  is  usually  rich  in  non-albuminoid  nitrogen. 


*  Per  cent,  of  water- free  substance. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  301 

Obviously,  tliese  results  have  an  important  bearing  on 
the  comparative  value  of  earlj-cut  as  compared  with  late- 
cut  hay.  In  all  the  experiments  on  this  subject  which  are 
adduced  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs,  the  protein  includes 
all  the  nitrogenous  matters  of  the  fodders.  Could  the  pro- 
portion of  non-protein  have  been  taken  into  account,  the  re- 
sults would,  doubtless,  have  been  somewhat  modified ;  but, 
at  the  same  time,  it  does  not  appear  probable,  from  what 
we  now  know,  that  they  would  have  been  essentially  dif- 
ferent. In  all  Ivellner's  experiments,  the  amount  of  true 
protein,  as  well  as  of  non-protein,  was  greatest  in  the 
earliest  cut  fodders,  and  we  have  seen  (p.  265)  that  the 
true  protein  of  early-cut  hay  appears  to  have  a  greater 
digestibility  than  that  of  late-cut. 

Moreover,  most  of  the  non-protein  was  in  the  form  of 
amides,  which  w^e  have  seen  to  have  a  certain  nutritive 
value. 

While,  then,  these  recent  results  show  that  the  compara- 
tive value  of  early-cut  hay  and  green  fodder  may  have 
been  overestimated  somewhat,  they  still  show  that  its 
quality  is  superior  to  that  of  late-cut,  other  things  being 
equal. 

§2.  The  Legumes. 

The  legumes — including  the  various  kinds  of  clover, 
lucerne,  vetches,  lupines,  etc.,  as  well  as  peas  and  beans- 
are  characterized  by  the  large  proportion  of  protein  con- 
tained both  in  the  plant  as  a  whole,  and  in  the  seeds. 
Owing  to  this  and  to  the  fact  that  they  are  plants  which 
are  much  more  independent  of  the  supply  of  nitrogen  in 
the  soil,  or  at  least  in  manures,  than  are  the  grasses  and 
grains,  they  are  of  much  importance  in  agriculture.  As 
fodders,  when  properly  cut  and  cured,  they  are  very  rich, 


302  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

but  have  the  disadvantage  of  being  rather  bulky,  and  of 
being  easily  subject  to  deterioration  by  mechanical  losses. 

Clover  and  Clover  Hay. — What  has  been  said  con- 
cerning the  variable  composition  of  meadow  grass  and  hay 
applies  with  equal  force  to  clover  and  to  all  coarse  fodders. 
As  a  general  rule,  clover  is  richer  in  nitrogenous  matters 
than  grass,  and  an  admixture  of  clover  with  meadow  hay 
usually  improves  the  quality  of  the  latter,  while  not  im- 
parting to  it  the  bulkiness  of  pure  clover  hay. 

As  regards  its  digestibility,  it  may  be  said  that,  com- 
pared with  meadow  hay,  its  protein  is  about  equally 
digestible,  its  crude  fibre  decidedly  less  digestible,  doubt- 
less owing  to  tiie  lignin  which  it  contains  (p.  41),  and  its 
nitrogen-free  extract  and  fat  rather  more  digestible.  As 
in  meadow  hay,  however,  the  digestibility  is  largely  in 
fluenced  by  the  quality  of  the  fodder,  and  this  again  by 
the  same  influences  which  affect  that  of  all  coarse  fodders. 

Period  of  Growth. — What  has  been  showTi  to  be  true 
of  meadow  hay  in  this  respect  applies  also  to  clover.  The 
earlier  it  is  cut  the  more  concentrated  and  digestible  a 
fodder  does  it  yield,  while,  as  it  grows  older,  the  crude 
fibre  increases,  and  it  becomes  coarse  and  less  easily 
digestible. 

For  example,  analyses  made  in  Hohenheim  of  clover  cut 
at  different  times  gave  the  following  percentages  of  pre- 
tein  in  the  dry  matter  : 

Cut  May  1st 23.3  per  cent. 

"    June  13tli 16.6       " 

"       "      23d 13.4       " 

*'    July  20th 11.4       " 

In  Mockern  the  following  results  were  obtained  for  pro* 
tein  in  the  dry  substance : 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  303 

Cut  May  20th 19.6  per  cent. 

"    June  Yth 16.3       " 

"       "     20th 13.2       " 

That  with  the  decrease  of  protein  and  increase  of  crude 
fibre  the  digestibility  of  the  former  as  well  as  of  the  total 
organic  matter  decreases  has  been  already  shown  (compare 
p.  263). 

Best  Time  for  Cutting. — In  regard  to  the  best  time 
for  cutting  clover,  the  considerations  advanced  in  the  pre- 
ceding section  concerning  grass  are  applicable,  as  shown  by 
numerous  experiments.  That  clover,  when  cut  young,  is 
of  better  quality  has  been  sufficiently  shown  already.  In 
regard  to  the  advantages  of  early  and  f  i-equent  cutting,  the 
experiments,  while  they  speak  decidedly  in  favor  of  it,  do 
not  all  give  such  striking  results  as  those  on  grass.  One 
such  experiment  on  a  mixture  of  grass  and  clover  has  al- 
ready been  adduced  (p.  296).  Another,  also  made  in 
Proskau,  gave  the  following  results  in  pounds  per  Prus- 
sian Morgen  : 


Three  cuttings. 
Two  cuttings. . . 


Protein. 
Lbs. 


Here,  again,  we  have  a  decided  gain  by  the  more  fre- 
quent cutting,  even  taking  no  account  of  the  better  quality 
and  greater  digestibility  of  the  fodder. 

Clover  and  similar  plants,  to  be  sure,  do  not  endure  too 
frequent  cutting  as  well  as  the  grasses ;  if  cut  often,  they 
frequently  yield  only  a  relatively  small  amount  of  fodder, 
but  one  of  excellent  quality. 


304 


MANUAI,   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


In  Tharand,  one  part  of  a  clover  field  was  cut  six  timea 
between  May  29tli  and  August  24:th,  in  imitation  of  the 
effects  of  pasturage.  The  resulting  fodder  and  one  ob- 
tained from  another  portion  of  the  same  field  in  two  cut- 
tings (July  7th  and  August  2tl:th),  made  when  the  clover 
was  in  full  bloom,  yielded  the  following  amounts  of  dry 
matter,  protein,  and  crude  fibre,  in  pounds,  per  Saxon 
Morgen  : 


Six  cutting's. . 
Two  cuttings. 


Dry 

matter. 

Lbs. 


2,924 

5,811 


Protein. 


615  lbs.  =21.0  per  cent. 
7G2  lbs.  =  13.1  percent. 


Crude  fibre. 


637  lbs.  =  21.7  per  ct. 
1,954  lbs.  =  33.0  per  ct. 


Although  nearly  twice  as  great  an  amount  of  dry  matter 
was  obtained  from  the  older  clover,  the  advantage  thus 
gained  was  nearly  equalized  by  the  far  better  quality  of 
the  younger,  especially  if  we  judge  it  by  its  content  of 
protein.  The  percentage  composition  shows  that  the  abso- 
lute quantity  of  digestible  protein  in  the  young  clover  was 
as  great,  and  perhaps  greater,  than  that  in  the  old. 

Losses  in  Curing. — AVhat  has  already  been  said  of  the 
losses  incident  to  the  curing  of  hay  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner applies  with  still  greater  force  to  clover.  The  stems 
of  clover  are  comparatively  coarse  and  thick,  while  the 
leaves,  on  the  contrary,  are  thin  and  tender.  Consequently, 
an  amount  of  drying  suflficient  to  properly  cure  the  stalks 
is  likely  to  render  the  leaves  so  dry  that  they  will  easily 
crumble  and  be  lost  in  handling.  Still  further  losses  of 
the  same  sort  are  liable  to  occur  in  the  mow  in  the  course 
of  a  winter. 

These  losses  are  all  the  more  serious  because  the  leaves 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  305 

of  clover  are  especially  rich  in  protein,  and  this  protein  is 
probably  far  more  digestible  than  that  of  the  stems.  In 
one  observation  the  dry  matter  of  the  leaves  was  foimd  to 
contain  22.3  per  cent,  of  protein  and  that  of  the  stems 
only  12  per  cent.,  while  of  the  total  quantity  of  protein 
more  than  half  was  contained  in  the  leaves.  In  other 
cases  still  greater  differences  between  stems  and  leaves  in 
this  respect  have  been  found. 

All  these  considerations  show  the  importance  of  avoid- 
ing these  mechanical  losses,  so  far  as  possible,  by  rapid 
curing,  carried  no  further  than  is  necessary,  and  an  avoid- 
ance of  much  handling. 

Effect  of  Wetting. — Clover  is  still  more  liable  to  suffer 
loss  by  rain  than  meadow  hay,  since  from  25  to  40  per 
cent,  of  its  dry  matter  is  removable  by  extraction  with 
cold  water. 

The  loss  consists  largely  of  soluble  portions  of  the  nitro- 
gen-free extract,  and  to  a  less  degree  of  protein  and  ash, 
while  the  crude  fibre  is  naturally  but  little  affected.  As  a 
consequence,  the  residue  contains  much  more  fibre  and 
much  less  extract  in  100  parts,  while  the  percentage  of 
protein  is  usually  little  changed. 

An  extreme  example  of  the  deterioration  of  clover  con- 
sequent on  exposure  to  rain  is  afforded  by  the  two  follow- 
ing analyses  made  at  Mockern.  -■ 

The  two  samples  grew  in  the  same  field,  and  were  cut 
at  the  same  time — at  the  beginning  of  flowering — but 
Ko.  1  was  cured  quickly  without  any  essential  loss,  while 
'No.  2  was  exposed  for  fourteen  days  to  almost  daily 
heavy  showers.  The  latter,  when  it  was  finally  dried,  ap- 
peared of  tolerable  quality,  and  could  still  be  used  as  fod- 
der, but  a  chemical  examination  showed  that  it  had  lost  by 
extraction  and  fermentation  27.4  per  cent,  of  the  original 


306 


MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 


dry  matter,  viz.,  3.8  per  cent,  of  protein,  20. G  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen-free  extract,  and  3  per  cent,  of  ash.  The  percent- 
age composition  of  the  two  samples  of  hay  in  the  air-dry 
state  (containing  16  per  cent,  of  water)  was  as  follows : 


No.    1. 

No.    2. 

Water 

16.0 
14.6 
25.3 
36.1 
8.0 

16.0 

Protein 

15.8 

Crude  fibre 

37.4 

Nitrogen-free  extract  and  fat 

23.4 

Ash 

75 

It  appears"  at  first  sight  that  No.  2,  instead  of  having 
deteriorated,  was  rather  improved  in  quality,  since  it  con- 
tains 1.2  per  cent,  more  crude  protein  than  No.  1. 

The  increase  is,  however,  only  apparent,  and  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  relatively  more  non-nitrogenous  than  nitro- 
genous nutrients  are  removed  from  clover  by  water  ;  so 
that  there  may  be  a  loss  of  protein  and,  at  the  same  time, 
an  increase  of  its  percentage  quantity  in  the  residual  fodder. 

The  protein  remaining  in  the  hay,  however,  must  be  the 
less  digestible  portions,  and  the  amount  of  digestible  pro- 
tein would  doubtless  be  greater  in  the  good  hay. 

The  great  relativ^e  increase  in  the  crude  fibre  deserves 
notice.  It  is,  of  course,  due  to  the  loss  of  the  more  soluble 
ingredients,  and  must  tend  to  decrease  still  further  the 
digestibility  and  value  of  the  hay.  These  facts  explain 
why,  in  practice,  clover  hay  is  sometimes  met  with  which, 
although  it  contains  considerable  protein,  is  of  the  poorest 
quality,  because  it  contains  at  the  same  time  much  crude 
fibre  and  little  extract  and  is  very  coarse  and  indigestible. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


307 


Lucerne. — This  important  fodder  plant  is  in  general 
even  richer  in  protein  than  red  clover,  but  is  inclined  to  a 
more  rapid  formation  of  woody  fibre  after  the  flowers  ap- 
pear. Wagner*  found  the  water-free  substance  of  two 
samples  cut  respectively  May  31st  and  June  30th  to  have 
the  following  composition : 


May  31  St. 

June  30t,h. 

Protein 

21.19 

3.04 

36.74 

29.90 

9.13 

16  27 

Fat 

2  36 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

37.80 

Crude  fibre 

35.94 

A&W 

8.13 

100.00 

100.00 

Evidently  lucerne  demands  early  cutting,  even  more 
than  clover,  in  order  to  yield  a  highly  nutritious  fodder. 

Digestibility. — Most  of  the  digestion  experiments  on 
Jucerne  hitherto  executed  have  been  made  on  material  of 
exceptionally  good  quality,  and  much  superior  to  what 
would  be  obtained  in  practice  by  the  ordinary  methods  of 
curing. 

Consequently,  the  digestion  coefficients  given  in  the 
Appendix  are  probably  higher  than  would  be  ordinarily 
observed.  In  some  recent  experiments  by  Kellner  f  the 
digestibility  of  ordinary  lucerne  hay  as  cured  in  the  field 
(No.  1)  was  compared  with  that  of  hay  from  the  same 
piece  of  ground,  dried  under  cover  and  without  loss  (No. 

*  Jahresber.  Agr.  Chem.,  XVI.,  25. 
.f  Landw.  Versuchs-Stationen,  XXI.,  425. 


308 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


2).     The  composition  and  digestibility  of  the  water-free 
substance  of  the  two  samples  were  as  follows : 


Composition. 


Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Crude  fibre. 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen- 
free  extract 
and  fat. 
Per  cent. 

Ash. 
Per  cent. 

No.  1 „. 

14.94 
17.00 

33.90 
31.81 

44.22 
43.80 

6  94 

No.  2 , . . . , 

7  39 

Digestibility. 

No.  1 „..„     

67 

71 

45 

48 

63 
66 

23 

No.2. 

29 

One  thousand  pounds  of  the  green  plants  yielded  the 
following  amounts  of  digestible  matters  : 


Dry  substance . . 
Organic  matter. 
Protein. 


No.  1. 
Lbs. 

No.  2. 
Lbs. 

140.16 

162.84 

135.92 

156.48 

25.64 

33.68 

Crude  fibre 

N.  fr.  ext.  and  fat 
Ash 


No.  1. 
Lbs. 


39.52 

70.52 

4.08 


No.  2. 
Lbs. 


42.48 

80.76 

5.9 


These  results  furnish  a  fresh  illustration  of  the  influence 
of  the  composition  of  a  fodder  on  its  digestibility,  while 
the  second  table  shows,  in  a  striking  manner,  the  very  con> 
siderable  losses  incident  to  field  curing. 

As  compared  with  clover  of  the  same  quality,  we  may 
assume,  with  comparative  certainty,  that  the  crude  protein 
of  lucerne  is  at  least  equally  digestible.     Ou  the  other 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


309 


hand,  the  crude  fibre  of  hicerne  is  decidedly  less  digestible 
than  that  of  clover,  the  nitrogen-free  extract  of  the  two 
fodders  is  about  equally  digestible,  and  the  fat  of  lucerne, 
like  that  of  meadow  hay,  seems  to  be  difficult  of  digestion. 

The  large  proportion  of  digestible  protein  which  it  con- 
tains renders  lucerne  both  absolutely  and  relatively  a  very 
nitrogenous  feeding-stuff.  If  fed  exclusively,  especially  as 
green  fodder,  it  supplies  an  excess  of  protein,  and  hence 
causes  a  waste  of  this  valuable  nutrient.  It  should  there- 
fore, in  most  cases,  be  used  in  connection  with  some  feed- 
ing-stuff poor  in  protein,  such  as  roots  or  straw,  to  realize 
the  best  effect. 

Yetches.  —  The  coefficients  given  in  the  Appendix  for 
vetches,  are  the  results  of  six  digestion  experiments  made 
in  Hohenheim  on  sheep.  The  fodder  was  of  excellent 
quality,  cut  at  the  very  beginning  of  flowering,  and  cured 
in  favorable  weather;  it  is  therefore  not  surprising  that 
the  digestion  coefficients  were  nearly  the  same  as  those  of 
the  best  clover  hay,  and  for  protein  even  higher. 

Like  lucerne,  the  vetch  is  inclined  to  a  rapid  formation 
of  woody  fibre  after  flowering,  and  deteriorates  in  quality. 
In  Waldau  the  following  percentages  of  protein  and  crude 
fibre  were  found  in  the  water-fi-ee  substance : 


•-.  Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Crude  fibre. 
Per  cent. 

Cut  May  23d 

"  July  12th .o 

25.4 
13.8 

20.8 
39  8 

In  the  state  in  which  vetches  are  generally  used  for  fod- 
der, however,  they  may  safely  be  considered  to  have  a 
higher  percentage  of  protein  than  clover. 


310  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Lttpines. — The  yellow  lupine  yields,  wlien  cut  just  at 
the  end  of  flowering,  tlie  most  highly  nitrogenous  of  all 
coarse  fodders. 

Experiments  by  Ileidepriem  "^  on  lupine  hay  cut  just  as 
the  pods  were  beginning  to  form,  perhaps  somewhat  ear- 
lier than  is  customary  in  practice,  showed  that  it  contained 
the  enormous  quantity  of  27.8  per  cent,  of  protein  in  the 
dry  matter. 

The  digestibility  of  the  protein  by  sheep  was  foimd  to 
be  74,  that  is,  almost  the  same  as  in  vetches  and  lucerne. 
This  seems  to  indicate  that  at  about  80  per  cent,  we  have 
reached  the  maximum  to  which  the  digestibility  of  the 
protein  of  coarse  fodder  can  rise,  since  with  about  the 
same  percentage  of  crude  fibre  the  quantity  of  protein 
varies  in  the  three  fodders  just  named  from  about  19.2 
per  cent,  to  27.8  per  cent.,  without  producing  any  consid- 
erable increase  of  its  digestibility. 

A  striking  fact  is  the  high  digestion  coefficient  found 
for  crude  fibre  (74),  while  in  vetches  and  lucerne,  both  of 
similar  composition,  it  was  much  lower,  viz.,  about  54 
and  38  respectively. 

If  this  observation  be  trustworthy,  lupine  hay  forms  an 
exception  to  the  general  rule  that  the  nitrogen-free  extract 
is  a  measure  of  the  total  digestible  non-nitrogenous  matter ; 
the  relation  in  this  case  was  found  to  be  100  :  124,  {.  <?.,  for 
100  parts  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  124  parts  of  extract  and 
crude  fibre  together  were  digested. 

Alkaloids  of  Lupines. — As  is  well  known,  lupine  hay 
and  green  lupines,  as  well  as  the  seeds  of  this  plant, 
must  be  used  almost  entirely  for  sheep  fodder,  since  other 
domestic  animals  eat  them  only  unwillingly  on  account  of 


*  Jahresber.  Agr.  Chem.,  16,  II.,  lia 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  311 

their  bitter  taste,  which  is  due  to  the  alkaloids  which  thej 
contain  (compare  p.  35).  The  large  amount  of  protein  in 
the  lupine,  however,  renders  it  a  valuable  fodder,  especially 
since  it  thrives  best  on  a  light,  sandy  soil  and  can  contrib- 
ute essentially  to  the  improvement  of  the  latter;  but  it 
must  be  fed  even  to  sheep  with  caution,  and  only  in  com> 
bination  with  other  feeding-stuffs  less  rich  in  protein. 

Poisonous  Effects. — At  various  times  poisonous  effects 
have  been  observed  to  result  from  the  feeding  of  lupine 
hay  to  sheep.  These  effects  have  frequently  been  ascribed 
to  the  alkaloids  which  it  contains.  In  some  years  and  in 
some  places  they  have  been  very  disastrous,  while  at  other 
times  or  in  other  places  no  such  results  have  been  observed. 
More  recent  investigations  indicate  that  the  amount  of  al- 
kaloids present  in  the  hay  is  too  small  to  produce  any  evil 
results,  and  that  the  cause  of  the  poisonous  effects  is  to  be 
sought  in  fungi  which  attack  the  plants  under  certain,  as 
yet  unknown,  conditions. 

Other  Legumes. — Besides  the  plants  above  described, 
there  are  a  number  of  others  which  serve,  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent,  as  fodder,  either  alone  or  in  combination  with 
other  feeding-stuffs. 

Numerous  analyses  of  these  plants  have  been  made,  but 
only  exceptionally  have  they  been  the  subject  of  exact  di- 
gestion experiments,  and  hence  their  digestibility  and  value 
as  fodder  can  be  only  approximately  estimated  by  com- 
parison with  similar  feeding-stuffs  of  analogous  composi- 
tion. 

The  so-called  Swedish  clover  {Trifolkcm  hyhridum)  is 
similar  in  quality  to  red  clover,  except  that  it  is  generally 
more  tender  and  richer  in  nitrogen  and  can  be  fed  to  ad- 
vantage in  a  more  advanced  stage  of  development.  This 
is  true  in  a  still  higher  degree  of  white  clover  ( T.  rejpens\ 


312  MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

which,  however,  is  generally  cultivated  only  for  pasturage 
in  conjunction  Avitli  other  clovers  and  grasses. 

The  Medick  {Medicago  lupulhid)^  frequently  but  incor- 
rectly called  yellow  clover,  must  also  be  considered  an  ex- 
cellent fodder,  so  far  as  mechanical  state  and  chemical 
composition  go,  while  the  incarnate  clover  {Trifolmm  in- 
carnatmiib)  easily  becomes  woody,  and  has  less  nutritive 
value. 

Another  forage  plant  which  is  stated  by  some  authors" 
to  have  been  lately  brought  before  the  public  in  Germany 
under  various  high-sounding  names,  is  the  sweet  clover 
{Melilotus  alha),  also  called  "  Bokhara  clover"  and  "  Stone 
clover."  It  does  not  appear,  however,  to  be  of  any  great 
importance,  except  possibly  in  dry,  stony  soils.  It  appears 
imposing  on  account  of  its  height,  but  the  proportion  of 
leaves  to  stem  is  small,  and  the  coarse  stems  rapidly  be- 
come very  woody,  necessitating  an  early  harvest. 

The  ethereal  oil  (cumarin)  peculiar  to  the  plant,  too, 
though  agreeable  to  cattle  in  very  small  quantities,  renders 
the  fodder  unpalatable,  if  present  in  more  than  a  trace. 
On  this  account,  sweet  clover  should  never  be  fed  ex- 
clusively. When  it  forms  a  third,  or  perhaps,  in  case  of 
sheep,  a  half  of  the  whole  ration  of  coarse  fodder,  the  ani- 
mals eat  it  freely,  and  it  may  be  reckoned  a  fair  fodder  for 
sheep,  horses,  and  oxen.  It  would  probably  not  be  suit- 
able for  milk  cows,  as  the  cumarin  would  be  likely  to  im- 
part a  flavor  to  the  milk. 

Many  authorities  place  a  high  value  on  the  kidney- vetch 
{A7ithi/llisvul7ieraria\esi^ecm\\y  for  light,  sandy  soils, where 
clover  does  not  flourish.  It  is  somewhat  poorer  in  protein 
than  the  foregoing  plants,  but  also  contains  less  crude  fibre, 
and  is  not  inclined  to  become  woody  so  rapidly. 

Among  its  advantages  are  reckoned  the  facts  that  it  is 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  313 

suited  for  a  liglit,  dry  soil ;  yields  a  comparatively  large 
quantity  of  nutrients  even  in  dry  years,  when  most  crops 
are  "  burned  up ; "  that  the  fodder  made  from  it  is  very 
wholesome ;  that  it  resists  frosts  well ;  and  that  in  the  fall 
it  may  be  pastured  without  injury  to  the  next  year's  crop. 
It  is  eaten  willingly  by  sheep  and  cattle,  either  green  or  as 
hay,  and  horses  soon  become  accustomed  to  it. 

The  esparsette  or  sainfoin  {OnohrycJiis  sativa)  seems, 
according  to  our  present  knowledge,  to  at  least  equal  red 
clover  in  its  percentage  of  protein,  and  to  retain  its  pala- 
tability  and  digestibility  to  a  somewhat  later  stage  of 
growth. 

Another  plant  cultivated  on  sandy  soils — the  seradella 
{OniiUtopus  sativics) — yields  an  especially  fine,  palatable, 
and  easily-digestible  fodder,  which  has  the  advantage  over 
other  forage  plants  that  it  retains  its  full  value  to  the  end 
of  the  flowering  period. 

It  gives  comparatively  small  crops,  however,  and  in  cur- 
ing, the  leaves,  i.  <?.,  the  most  valuable  part,  are  easily 
lost.  These  last  two  crops,  which  seem  to  be  but  little  cul- 
tivated in  this  country,  are  ranked  by  some  authorities  as 
of  equal  value  with  clover,  and  as  even  superior  to  it  in  a 
dietetic  point  of  view,  since  they  are  not  "  heating."  Like 
the  kidney-vetch  just  spoken  of,  they  withstand  drought 
much  better  than  clover,  and  it  is  claimed  that  a  new  va- 
riety of  esparsette  has  been  produced  which  yields  larger 
crops. 

This  is  not  the  place  for  a  description  of  the  plants  or  of 
their  cultivation,  but  it  would  certainly  be  of  interest  to 
experiment  on  their  cultivation  in  this  country. 

Non-Pkotein  in  the  Legumes. — On  page  299  attention 
has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  proportion  of 
non-protein  in  the  hay  from  leguminous  plants  is  generally 
14 


314  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

large,  and  does  not  decrease  very  markedly  as  the  plants 
approach  maturity. 

Kellner's  analyses  are  as  yet  the  only  ones  that  have 
been  made.  As  the  average  of  all  his  results,  the  non- 
protein amounted  to  28.42  per  cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen- 
ous matters,  the  variation  being  from  16.5  to  35.5  per 
cent. 

§3.  Hungarian  Grass. 

Composition. — Hungarian  grass,  or  millet,  has  long 
been  cultivated  as  a  fodder  plant  in  Southern  Europe, 
where  at  least  three  species  of  it  are  distinguished.  It  is 
stated  to  withstand  drought  well,  and  to  yield  its  largest 
crops  in  dry,  hot  seasons.  It  is  a  rapid  grower,  occupying 
the  ground  but  about  three  months. 

Only  four  analyses  of  millet  grown  in  this  country  are 
reported.*  The  average  of  these  analyses  gives  it  about 
the  composition  of  fair  meadow  hay.  Two  of  these 
analyses,  however,  were  made  on  somewhat  immature 
samples,  which  were  consequently  richer  in  protein.  The 
average  of  the  other  two  samples  is : 

Water 16.70  per  cent. 

Ash 5.82       " 

Protein 5.91        " 

Crude  fibre 28.06       '* 

Nitrogen-free  extract 42. 15       '  * 

Fat 1.36       " 

100.00 

A  fodder  of  this  sort  has  about  the  same  composition  as 
the  poorer  grades  of  meadow  hay.  It  is  deficient  in  pro- 
tein and  rich    in  non-nitrogenous    nutrients,   and   hence 

•  Report  Conn.  Ag'l  Expt.  Station,  1879,  p.  150 


MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  315 

must  be  supplemented  by  some  nitrogenous  bye-fodder 
such  as  oil  cake,  in  order  to  form  a  suitable  ration  for  pro- 
ductive purposes. 

But  one  examination  of  millet  for  non-protein  has  been 
made.*  In  this  case  nearly  40  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen 
was  found  to  be  contained  in  non-albuminoid  compounds. 

Digestibility. — l^o  determinations  of  the  digestibility 
of  millet  have  been  made.  For  the  present,  until  such 
determinations  have  been  made,  we  may  assume  it  to  have 
about  the  digestibility  of  hay  of  similar  composition. 

§  4.  Maize  Fodder  and  Stover. 

Composition. — By  maize  fodder  we  understand  maize 
which  is  grown  exclusively  for  the  sake  of  its  stalks  and 
leaves,  is  cut  comparatively  early,  and  is  either  used  for 
soiling  or  cured  for  winter  fodder.  By  the  term  stover 
we  designate  the  stalks  and  leaves  of  ripe  maize  from 
which  the  ears  have  been  removed.  The  two  are  the 
same  plant  in  different  periods  of  growth,  and  it  is  evident 
from  what  we  have  already  learned  of  the  composition  of 
plants  in  different  stages  of  development,  that  maize  fod- 
der must  vary  greatly  in  composition  according  to  the 
time  at  which  it  is  cut,  while  stover  will  be  found  very 
much  poorer  in  protein  and  richer  in  crude  fibre  and  carb- 
hydrates  generally. 

Green  maize  is  a  very  watery  fodder,  containing  from 
80  to  over  90  per  cent,  of  water,  but  when  cut  early  its 
dry  matter  is  quite  rich  in  protein.  It  is  a  very  palatable 
fodder  and  well  suited  for  milk  cows,  but  is  too  watery  for 
exclusive  use. 

*  Report  Conn.  Ag  1  Expt.  Station,  1879,  p.  112. 


316  MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

That  which  is  cut  later,  and  especially  that  which  is 
commonly  cured  for  winter  fodder,  is  usually  rich  in  carb- 
hydrates  but  poor  in  albuminoids,  having  a  nutritive  ratio 
of  1:9  to  12,  or  even  wider.  On  this  account  it  cannot 
be  used  exclusively,  but  must  be  supplemented  by  more 
nitrogenous  feeding-stuffs  ;  but  ^vhen  its  proper  fimction 
is  recognized,  viz.,  to  furnish  chiefly  non -nitrogenous  nutri- 
ents, and  its  deficiency  of  protein  is  made  up  by  other  in- 
gredients of  the  ration,  it  forms  a  valuable  feeding-stuff, 
which  experience  has  shown  to  be  well  adapted  to  cattle. 
The  necessity  for  the  use  of  nitrogenous  bye-fodders  is,  of 
course,  still  greater  in  the  case  of  stover,  which  is  esti- 
mated by  Wolff  to  have  about  the  same  nutritive  value  as 
rye  straw. 

Digestibility. — On  the  digestibility  of  maize  fodder  we 
have  but  a  single  experiment,  by  Moser,^  on  a  very  good 
quality  of  maize  fodder,  which  showed  a  high  digestibility 
of  all  the  nutrients,  particularly  crude  fibre  and  fat. 

From  the  results  of  one  such  experiment,  however,  no 
general  conclusions  regarding  the  digestibility  of  a  fodder 
can  be  drawn. 

Ensilage. — Within  a  short  time  the  process  of  "  ensi- 
lage" has  been  recommended  to  our  farmers  as  a  most 
advantageous  method  of  preserving  maize  fodder  in  par- 
ticular, and  a  few  pi-actical  trials  of  it  have  given  favorable 
results.  While  some  extravagant  claims  have  been  made 
for  it,  it  doubtless  possesses  certain  advantages  over  field 
curing  as  well  as  certain  disadvantages  peculiar  to  itself. 

The  process  consists  essentially  in  storing  the  finely  cut 
green  fodder  in  suitable  receptacles,  in  which  it  is  closely 
packed,  and  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  exclude  the  air  as 

*  Landw.  Versuchs-Statioueu,  VIII.,  93. 


MANUAL  OF  OATTLE-FEEDING.  317 

completely  a8  possible.  For  a  more  detailed  description 
of  tlie  method,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  recently  trans- 
lated work  on  this  subject  by  Goffart.  With  unessential 
modifications  it  has  long  been  in  use  in  Germany,  the  pro- 
duct being  known  as  "  sour  maize  "  or  "  sour  hay,"  while 
if  the  fodder  be  partly  dried  before  being  stored,  it  yields 
"  brown  hay." 

Advantages  of  Ensilage.  —  The  chief  advantages  of 
ensilage  as  a  method  of  preserving  fodder  are,  that  it  is 
independent  of  the  weather,  a  great  advantage  in  some  lo- 
calities ;  that  the  fodder  is  handled  when  green,  and  that 
therefore  no  loss  of  the  more  tender  and  nutritious  parts 
need  be  feared  ;  that  the  resulting  fodder  is  soft  and  easily 
masticated,  and  that  the  fermentation  which  takes  place 
in  it  renders  it,  perhaps,  more  palatable  to  the  animals. 

These  are  not  unimportant  advantages,  and  in  many 
cases  may  be  sufficient  to  cause  the  adoption  of  the 
method.  On  the  other  hand,  ensilage,  of  itself,  adds 
nothing  to  the  value  of  the  fodder  submitted  to  it,  but 
rather  diminishes  it. 

Chemical  Changes  in  Ensilage. — In  the  silo  a  sort; 
of  fermentation  is  carried  on  at  the  expense  of  the  ex- 
tractive matters  of  the  fodder,  resulting  in  the  formation 
of  various  organic  acids  and  volatile  bodies,  and  naturally 
diminishing  the  quantity  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  and 
thereby  increasing  the  percentage  of  all  the  other  ingre- 
dients. 

This  is  illustrated  by  the  following  analyses  of  fresh 
maize  and  ensilage  by  Grandean."^  The  two  contained  re- 
spectively 86.20  per  cent,  and  81.28  per  cent,  of  water. 
The  dry  matter  had  the  following  composition : 

*  Jour.  d'Agric.  prat.,  1875,  pp.  77  and  126. 


318 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Fresh. 
Per  cent. 

Ensilage. 
Per  cent. 

6.52 

1.30 

58.71 

26.59 

6.88 

6.62 

1.92 

53.21 

26.23 

12.02 

Fat             . .         

Nitrogen-free  extract 

Crude  fibre 

Ash    

100.00 

100.00 

Some  investigations  by  Weiske  *  on  the  ensilage  of  es- 
parsette,  in  which  the  total  amount  of  loss  by  fermenta- 
tion was  determmed,  show  the  natm-e  of  the  alterations 
which  the  fodder  midergoes  still  more  clearly. 

The  composition  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  fresh  espar- 
sette,  as  it  was  applied  to  the  preparation  of  "brown 
hay  "  and  "  sour  hay,"  and  that  of  the  di*y  matter  of  the 
two  latter,  was  as  follows : 


Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Fat. 
Per  cent. 

Crude  fibre. 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 
Per  cent. 

Ash. 
Per  cent. 

Fresh  

18.56 
20.69 
20.44 

2.89 

4.87 
6.02 

33.93 
32.38 
35.18 

38.60 
35.06 
30.88 

6.02 

Brown  hay 

Sour  hay 

7.00 
7.48 

As  before,  the  fermented  fodder  is  poorer  in  nitro- 
gen-free extract  and  richer  in  other  ingredients  than  the 
original  materials.  The  loss  of  dry  matter  during  fermen- 
tation was,  in  the  case  of  the  brown  hay,  18.5  per  cent., 


•Jour.  f.  Landw.,  1877,  p.  170. 


MANUAL   OF   OATTLE-FEEDING. 


319 


and  in  that  of  the  sour  haj,  24.0  per  cent.  Consequently 
100  pounds  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  unfermented  fodder 
yielded  the  following  quantities  of  nutrients  in  the  three 
cases : 


Dry 
matter. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Crude 
fibre. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Ash. 

Fresh    (pounds). 
Brown  hay    " 

Loss  (pounds) . 

Loss  (per  cent.) 

100.0 

81.5 
18.5 

18.5 

18.56 

16.86 

1.70 

9.2 

2.89 
3.97 

+-1.08 
+37.4 

33.93 
26.39 
7.54 
22.2 

38.60 
28.57 
10.13 
26.3 

6.02 
5.72 
0.30 
5.0 

Fresh    (pounds). 
Sour  hay       "      ^ 

Loss  (pounds) . 

Loss  (per  cent.) 

100 
76 
24 
24 

18.56 
15.53 
3.03 
16.3 

2.89 
4.57 
+  1.68 
+  58.1 

33.93 
26.74 
7.19 
21.2 

38.60 
23.47 
15.13 
39.2 

6.02 
5.69 
0.33 
5.5 

These  results  render  it  evident  that  tlie  preparation  of 
brown  hay,  and  still  more  that  of  sour  hay  or  ensilage,  in- 
volves a  much  greater  loss  of  substance  than  is  ordinarily 
to  be  feared  in  drying  in  the  field.  It  is  possible  that  the 
losses  would  be  smaller  with  maize  than  with  a  highly  ni- 
trogenous fodder  like  clover  or  esparsette ;  but  they  are, 
doubtless,  considerable.  The  apparent  increase  in  the  fat 
during  fermentation  appears  to  be  due  to  the  formation  of 
lactic  acid  and  other  substances  soluble  in  ether. 

A  certain  advantage  may  perhaps  be  gained  by  ensilage 
in  so  far  as  the  resulting  fodder  contains  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  protein,  and  therefore  does  not  require  so  large  an 
addition  of  bye-fodder.  Corn  being  a  comparatively 
clieap  crop,  the  losses  of  material  during  the  fermentation 


320  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDIKG. 

might  be  compensated  by  the  improved  quality  of  the 
residue. 

It  does  not  appear  from  Grandeau's  analyses,  however, 
that  there  is  any  very  marked  difference  in  this  respect 
between  fresh  maize  and  ensilage.  If  this  is  generally  the 
case,  then  fermented  corn  fodder  has  aU  the  advantages  of 
the  fresh  fodder,  and  no  others,  except  perhaps  as  regards 
palatability,  and  ensilage  is  to  be  looked  upon  simply  as  a 
method  of  preserving  corn  fodder,  and  the  question  of  its 
adoption  is  a  pm-ely  economical  one. 

Effect  on  Digestibility. — IN^o  comparative  experiments 
on  the  digestibility  of  ensilage  have  been  made,  but  a  few 
experiments  in  which  small  amounts  of  fodder  were  fer- 
mented (compare  page  266)  showed  rather  a  decrease  than 
an  increase  of  digestibility.  In  Weiske's  ex^periments  the 
digestibility  of  both  the  browai  and  sour  hay  was  fomid  to 
be  quite  low.  Weiske  also  fomid  that  the  browTi  hay  of 
lucerne  had  about  the  same  digestibility  as  that  dried  in 
the  field.  It  is  not,  therefore,  to  be  anticipated  that  ensi- 
lage will  be  found  to  materially  affect  the  digestibility  of 
fodder. 

Quality  of  the  Fodder. — The  value  of  fodder  pre- 
served by  ensilage  must  evidently  depend  on  the  quality 
of  the  original  material.  The  loss  of  non-nitrogenous 
matters  which  it  suffers  narrows  the  nutritive  ratio  some- 
what, and  renders  it  more  valuable,  pound  for  pound,  than 
the  green  fodder.  With  this  exception,  the  remarks  al- 
ready made  concerning  the  quality  and  value  of  maize,  as 
well  as  of  other  fodders,  are  applicable  here.  It  is  espe- 
cially important  to  recoUect  that  the  composition  of  the 
ensilage,  and  its  nutritive  effect,  must,  of  necessity,  be  just 
as  variable  as  those  of  the  fodder  from  which  it  is  pre- 
pared. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEBING.  321 

Tlie  few  analyses  of  ensilage  which  we  possess  show 
that,  like  corn  fodder,  it  is  rich  in  non-nitrogenous  nutri- 
ents and  poor  in  protein,  requiring  the  addition  of  a  bje- 
fodder  rich  in  protein  m  order  to  produce  the  best  re- 
sults. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  added  that  in  some  cases  inju- 
rious effects  have  been  observed  to  result  from  too  great 
acidity  of  the  fermented  fodder — a  fault  easily  remedied 
by  the  addition  of  a  little  pulverized  chalk. 

^  5.  Tops  of  Egot  Crops. 

Composition. — The  leaves  of  the  various  root  crops  are 
very  watery,  but  their  dry  matter  is  usually  rich  m  nitrog- 
enous matters,  and  contains  but  a  small  percentage  of 
crude  fibre.  On  the  other  hand,  much  of  their  nitrogen 
appears  to  be  in  the  form  of  non-protein,  and  the  leaves  of 
mangolds  and  sugar  beets  in  particular  possess  strong  pur- 
gative properties,  owing  to  the  large  proportion  of  salts  and 
of  organic  acids  which  they  contain.  Consequently  they 
must  be  fed  with  caution.  German  authorities  recommend 
that  they  be  treated  by  ensilage,  and  used  in  small  quanti- 
ties as  an  addition  to  winter  fodder.  Carrot  and  turnip 
tops  possess  the  injurious  property  just  named  to  a  less 
degree. 

Digestibility.— Experiments  by  Wildt^  on  the  digesti- 
bility of  fermented  beet  leaves,  when  fed  with  bariey 
straw  to  sheep,  showed  that  they  had  a  fair  degree  of 
digestibility— 57  per  cent,  of  the  total  organic  matter  and 
65  per  cent,  of  the  protein  being  digested. 

Potato  tops  were  found  to  be  much  less  digestible.  The 
latter,  however,  can  hardly  be  accounted  a  f eeding-stufp '; 

*  Landw.  Jahrbucher,  VII.,  133. 


322  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

they  are  comparatively  poor  in  nutritive  matters,  and  are 
coarse  and  unpalatable. 

Leaves. — The  leaves  of  deciduous  trees  have  sometimes 
been  used  as  fodder,  the  young  shoots  being  cut  off  while 
the  leaves  were  still  green,  and  allowed  to  dry.  The  leaves 
contain  a  medium  amount  of  protein,  a  small  percentage 
of  crude  fibre,  and  considerable  fatty  matter  and  wax.  In 
the  experiments  by  Wildt  just  mentioned,  poplar  leaves 
were  found  to  be  fairly  digestible.  They  are  fed  only  to 
sheep,  and  are  believed  to  exert  an  excellent  dietetic  effect 
when  given  in  small  quantities. 

\  2  6.  Straw  of  the  Ceeeals. 

Stra-w  a  Valuable  Fodder. — Straw  is  a  feeding-stuff 
frequently  regarded  as  of  little  value,  and  yet  good  straw 
is  most  decidedly  better  than  poor  hay.  Indeed,  hay  and 
straw  are  practically  almost  the  same  crop,  cut  at  different 
stages  of  growth.  The  grasses  and  the  cereals  both  belong 
to  the  same  natural  order  {Graminecc),  but  while  the  for- 
mer are  (or  should  be)  cut  while  still  green,  for  the  sake  of 
their  stems  and  leaves,  the  latter  are  gi'own  primarily  for 
their  seeds,  and  are  therefore  harvested  later,  when  much 
of  their  nutritive  matters  has  passed  into  the  seed.  It 
may  easily  come  to  pass,  then,  that  if,  on  the  one  hand, 
grass  is  cut  very  late  or  exposed  to  rain  while  curmg,  and  if, 
on  the  other  hand,  grain  is  harvested  early,  the  straw  from 
the  latter  may  exceed  in  value  the  hay  of  the  former. 

In  any  case,  good  straw  is  a  feeding-stuff  not  to  be  de- 
spised. As  the  table  in  the  Appendix  shows,  it  is  rich  in 
non-nitrogenous  matter,  especially  in  crude  fibre,  and  poor 
in  protein,  and  hence  is  not  suited  alone  to  form  a  ration. 
Its  value  Lies  in  its  non-nitrogenous  matters,  of  which  it 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING.  323 

furnishes  an  abundant  and  cheap  snpply,  and  in  combina- 
tion with  feeding-stuffs  which  can  supply  its  deficiency  in 
protein,  it  forms  a  valuable  fodder.  The  old  assumptions 
that  the  crude  fibre  of  straw  was  indigestible,  and  that  its 
digestibility,  as  a  whole,  was  far  less  than  that  of  other 
coarse  fodders,  have  been  shown  to  be  erroneous ;  the  ex- 
periments of  Henneberg  &  Stohmann,  since  fully  con- 
firmed by  numerous  others,  have  shown  indisputably  that 
about  half  of  the  total  nutrients  of  straw,  including  the 
crude  fibre,  are  digestible,  at  least  by  ruminants,  thus 
placing  it  on  an  equality  with  other  coarse  fodders  as 
regards  digestibility. 

Straw  is  in  general  an  entirely  suitable  fodder  both  for 
horses  and  cattle,  similar  in  its  dietetic  action  to  hay. 
Straw  which  has  suffered  from  diseases  (rust,  mildew,  etc.), 
and  is  thereby  rendered  unfit  to  serve  as  fodder  at  all,  is, 
of  course,  excluded  in  this  statement. 

Variations  in  Composition. — The  composition  and 
value  of  straw  may  vary  considerably,  depending,  in  the 
first  place,  on  the  kind  of  straw.  Oat  straw  is  usually  the 
richest;  then  follows  barley,  which  is  valued  for  milk 
cows ;  next  wheat,  and  last,  rye,  which  is  the  poorest  and 
least  digestible  of  all.  Summer  straw  is  generally  some- 
what richer  in  protein  and  poorer  in  crude  fibre  than 
winter  straw,  and  also  more  tender  and  digestible.  The 
soil  and  manuring  also  influence  the  composition  of  straw 
in  the  same  way  as  that  of  hay ;  a  rich  and  well-manured 
soil  yields  a  better  fodder  than  a  poor,  unmanured  one. 
The  manner  of  sowing,  too,  has  an  influence  on  the  quality  ; 
when  thickly  sown  broadcast  the  plants  shade  each  other, 
and  the  stalks  remain  more  tender  and  succulent  and  less 
woody  than  the  stalks  of  plants  sown  in  drills  and  more 
exposed  to  light  and  air. 


324  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

The  time  of  harvest  has  a  great  influence  on  the  nutri- 
tive quahties  of  straw,  just  as  it  does  on  those  of  hay.  As 
in  the  latter  so  in  the  former,  the  earlier  it  is  cut  the  richer 
in  protein  and  the  more  nutritious  it  is. 

In  fields  which  have  been  seeded  do'\,\Ti  to  grain,  the  straw 
of  the  latter,  in  fruitful  years,  is  often  so  intergrown  with 
grass,  clover,  etc.,  as  to  essentially  increase  its  value  and 
enable  it  to  entirely  take  the  place  of  hay. 

Digestibility. — Comparatively  few  determinations  of 
the  digestibility  of  straw  have  been  made,  oat  straw  being 
the  one  chiefly  experimented  on. 

Henneberg  &  Stohmann  found  in  exclusive  straw  feed- 
ing of  oxen  the  coefficients  -i-i  and  39  for  protein ;  while 
Wolff,  in  experiments  on  sheep,  obtained  the  much  lower 
numbers,  33  and  14,  with  straw  containing  an  equal  per- 
centage of  protein.  In  the  latter  experiments,  to  be  sure, 
the  straw  was  raised  in  drills  and  was  hard-stemmed,  but 
the  animals  were  allowed  to  select  the  tenderer  parts,  and 
only  the  straw  actually  consumed  served  as  the  basis  of  the 
calculation.  The  crude  fibre  of  oat  straw  is  quite  as  easily 
digestible  as  that  of  good  hay,  but  the  digestibility  of  the 
nitrogen-free  extract  and  the  fat  is  decidedly  less. 

On  the  digestibility  of  barley  straw  few  experiments 
have  yet  been  made. 

In  experiments  by  Wildt,*  the  digestion  coeflicient  for 
protein  was  found  strikingly  low,  viz.,  17.  The  straw, 
evidently,  was  over-ripe,  and  contained  only  4.9  per  cent, 
of  protein  in  the  dry  substance.  The  digestibility  of  the 
nitrogen-free  extract  and  the  fibre  was  found  to  be  51  per 
cent,  and  56  per  cent,  respectively.  With  a  higher  per- 
centage of  protein  the  digestibility  of  these  nutrients  in 

Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VIL,  146. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  325 

barley  straw  would,  doubtless,  also  be  higher,  and  the  lat- 
ter would  prove  to  be  a  valuable  straw  for  feeding. 

The  relative  digestibility  of  the  constituents  of  winter 
straw  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  summer  straw.  The 
coefficients  of  the  former,  however,  are  usually  somewhat 
lower,  corresponding  to  the  difference  in  composition. 

This  is  the  case  only  in  a  slight  degree  with  the  nitrogen- 
free  extract  and  the  fat,  but  is  more  noticeable  in  the  case 
of  protein  and  the  crude  fibre,  as  deduced  from  the  accor- 
dant results  of  experiments  made  at  Weende,  Dahme,  and 
Salzmiinde  on  rye  straw  (in  a  single  case  only  on  wheat 
straw). 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  the  digestion  coefficient 
for  protein  in  feeding-stuffs  having  so  little  of  this  nutri- 
ent as  the  straw  of  the  cereals,  may  easily  be  found  too 
low  on  account  of  the  admixture  of  biliary  and  other  pro- 
ducts in  the  excrements.  At  the  same  time,  the  straw  used 
in  most  of  these  experiments  was  comparatively  rich  in 
protein,  and  at  any  rate  the  numbers  thus  obtained  must 
be  used  until  they  can  be  replaced  by  more  accurate  ones. 

Manner  of  Using-. — Large  quantities  of  straw  in  a 
ration  are  more  suitable  for  ruminants  than  for  the  horse, 
since  the  former,  on  account  of  their  large  stomach,  and 
the  length  and  complexity  of  their  digestive  canal,  are 
better  able  to  utilize  large  masses  of  coarse  fodder.  For 
swine,  straw  is  not  well  adapted. 

Among  ruminants,  the  sheep  is  better  adapted  than  the 
ox  to  utilize  straw.  By  means  of  its  pointed  mouth  and 
flexible  lips,  it  is  easier  for  it  to  seek  out  the  most  valuable 
parts  of  the  fodder,  such  as  imperfect  grains  which  have  es- 
caped threshing,  short  grass  and  other  plants,  and  the  ears 
and  upper  ends  of  the  stems,  while  rejecting  the  coarser 
portions. 


326  MANUAL    OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

It  is  a  very  good  practice  to  let  all  the  straw  wliicli  is  to 
serve  for  litter  be  first  put  before  sheep.  In  the  finer  and 
more  tender  parts  which  they  seek  ont  and  consume,  a 
much  larger  percentage  of  protein  and  a  much  narrower 
nutritive  ratio  is  found  than  is  shown  by  an  analysis  of  the 
whole  straw.  Accordino^  to  Krocker's  investio^ations  ^'  the 
nitrogen  content  of  the  stalk  of  barley  and  rye  straw  is  to 
that  of  the  leaves,  leaf -sheaths,  and  ear-stalks  as  1  to  1.0. 
That  is,  the  latter  contain  nearly  twice  as  much  protein  as 
the  former,  and  when  sheep  have  laid  before  them  so  much 
straw  that  they  eat  only  these  tender  parts,  they  actually 
receive  a  fodder  which  differs  little  from  hay  in  value. 

Similar  results  were  obtained  by  Arendt  f  in  his  investi- 
gation on  the  growth  of  the  oat  plant.  In  100  grammes 
of  dry  matter  from  the  various  parts  of  the  ripe  plant  the 
following  quantities  of  nitrogen  were  found : 

Grms. 

Three  lower  joints  of  the  stem 0 .  79 

''      middle         "           "           1.17 

"      upper           "          "          1.56 

"      lower  leaves 1.43 

Two  upper        "     '. 1 .  74 

Ears 3 .  04 


?  7.  Straw  op  the  Legumes. 

Composition  and  Digestibility. — Much  of  what  has 
been  said  of  the  straw  of  the  cereals  is  true  of  that  of  the 
leguminous  plants,  but  the  latter  differs  very  considerably 
in  composition  from  the  former,  just  as  clover  hay  does 
from  meadow  hay.  The  straw  of  the  cereals  is  poor  in 
protein  and  rich  in  non-nitrogenous  matter ;  that  of  the 

♦  Annalen  der  Landwirthschaft,  1861,  XII,  415. 
f  Compare  "How  Crops  Grow,"  pp.  204-219. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDIXG.  327 

legumes,  on  the  contrary,  is  relatively  richer  in  protein 
and  has  a  narrower  nutritive  ratio,  and  hence  is  more  nu- 
tritious and  more  digestible. 

The  digestion  coefficients  for  bean  straw  given  in  the 
Appendix  are  deduced  from  only  a  few  experiments  made 
in  Weende,  in  which  this  feeding-stuff  was  fed  to  oxen. 
In  this  substance,  as  in  clover  hay,  the  crude  fibre  is  less 
digestible  and  the  nitrogen-free  extract  more  digestible 
than  in  the  straw  of  the  cereals.  The  coefficients  for  pea 
straw  are  from  a  few  experiments  made  in  Ilohenheim,  in 
which  only  the  more  tender  parts  of  the  straw  were  eaten 
by  sheep.  The  portion  actually  eaten  had  the  composition 
of  tolerably  good  clover  hay  (li.O  per  cent,  of  protein, 
31.9  per  cent,  of  crude  fibrej,  and  the  digestibility  was 
correspondingly  high. 

In  general,  in  the  hay  and  straw  of  the  legumes  the 
crude  fibre  is  less  digestible  and  the  nitrogen-free  extract, 
on  the  contrary,  more  digestible  than  in  the  hay  and  straw 
of  the  graminese.  The  crude  fibre  of  lupine  hay  forms  a 
striking  exception  to  this,  and  that  of  lupine  straw  {i.  e., 
the  stalks  and  leaves  remaining  when  the  plant  is  culti- 
vated for  the  seed)  seems  to  show  the  same  behavior.  In 
both  feeding-stuffs  the  whole  quantity  of  non-nitrogenous 
matter  digested  exceeds  considerably  the  amoimt  of  nitro- 
gen-fiee  extract  found  by  analysis  (see  p.  310). 

?  8.  Chaff,  Pods,  and  Maize  Cob. 

ChafiJ  etc. — Wheat  chaff  generally  contains  more  pro- 
tein than  the  straw.  The  chaff  of  barley  and  oats,  on  the 
contrary,  is  generally  poorer  in  protein  than  the  straw  of 
the  same  plants.  In  the  pods  of  the  legumes  we  usually 
find  at  least  as  much  protein  as  in  their  straw. 


328 


MANUAL   OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 


All  kinds  of  cliaff  are,  as  a  rule,  poorer  in  crude  fibre 
than  the  straw,  and  it  is  hence  to  be  assumed  that  the 
digestibility  of  the  remaining  ingredients  is  correspond- 
ingly higher ;  but  direct  experiments  on  this  point  are 
still  lacking.  The  mechanical  condition  of  these  feeding- 
stuffs  causes  them,  when  fed  in  proper  quantity,  to  be 
more  agreeable  and  palatable  to  cattle  than  whole  or 
cut  straw. 

Maize  Cob. — The  question  of  the  nutritive  value  of 
maize  cob  is  one  which  has  long  been  under  discussion  by 
practical  farmers,  but  to  which  no  decisive  answer  can  yet 
be  given.  The  evidence  of  chemical  analysis  goes  to  show 
that,  like  straw  and  similar  fodders,  its  chief  value  is  as  a 
source  of  carbhydrates.  The  average  of  nine  analyses  of 
American  maize  cob  ^'  gives  it  the  following  composition : 


Air-dry. 

Water-free. 

Water 

9.16 
1.32 
2.22 
32.04 
54.85 
0.41 

Ash 

1.45 

Protein. 

2.44 

Crude  fibre 

35.31 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

60.35 

Fat 

0.45 

100.00 

100.00 

Xo  experiments  on  the  digestibility  of  maize  cob  have 
yet  been  made,  and  hence  it  is  impossible  to  pronounce 
definitely  npon  its  nutritive  value.  Presumably,  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  it  would  prove  to  be  digestible,  particu- 


*  Report  Conn.  Ag'l  Expt.  Station,  1879,  p.  145. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDIN».  329 

larly  by  ruminants,  and  from  the  results  obtained  regard- 
ing the  digestibility  of  straw,  etc.,  as  well  as  from  its  com- 
position, it  is  evident  that  the  digested  portion  would  be 
chiefly  carbhydrates,  with  but  little  protein  or  fat. 

The  common  method  of  using  cobs  as  feed  is  to  grind 
them  with  the  grain,  making  "  cob  meal."  Some  recent 
practical  trials  ^  seem  to  indicate  that  the  same  nutritive 
effect  may  be  produced  by  a  less  quantity  of  the  kernel 
when  the  latter  is  fed  along  with  cob  as  cob-meal,  the  dif- 
ference being  made  up  by  the  digestible  matters  of  the 
cob.  The  latter,  as  has  been  said,  probably  consist  chiefly 
of  carbhydrates ;  their  effect  would  be  to  widen  the  nutri- 
tive ratio  of  the  ration,  and  thus  to  favor  a  more  economi- 
cal production.  Unfortunately,  these  experiments  did  not 
include  analyses  of  the  fodder  used,  and  hence  their  results, 
though  interesting  as  indications  of  the  digestibility  of 
maize  cob,  are  not  suited  for  elaborate  discussion  here. 

*  Report  of  Joint  Committee  of  the  Pomf ret  and  Woodstock,  Conn, , 
Farmers'  Clubs. — Connecticut  Farmer,  Nov.  15,  1879. 


CHAPTEE  III. 

CONCENTRATED  FODDERS. 

This  name  is  given  to  those  feeding-stuffs  which,  occur- 
ling  largely  in  trade,  contain  in  a  given  weight  a  relatively 
large  quantity  of  digestible  matters.  The  nitrogen-fi-ee 
extract  consists  for  the  most  part  of  carbhydrates,  particu- 
larly in  the  grains,  and  albuminoids  and  fat  are  frequently 
present  in  large  proportions. 

^  1.  The  Grains. 

Value. — Of  all  the  concentrated  fodders  the  grains  are 
perhaps  the  most  important.  They  contain  large  quanti- 
ties of  nutrients  and  are  a  specific  fodder  for  working 
animals.  Practice  seems  to  show  that  grain  feeding  for 
certain  purposes  is  indispensable,  and  attempts  to  replace 
grain  by  other  feeding- stuffs,  even  those  in  which  chemical 
analysis  shows  an  equal  amount  of  nutritive  matter,  have 
either  failed  or  met  with  but  partial  success. 

It  is  especially  suited  for  animals  which  have  to  per- 
form severe  work  and  for  young  animals ;  while  for  those 
which  have  reached  maturity,  and  of  which  only  a  moder- 
ate amount  of  work  is  demanded,  other  feeding-stuffs  may 
take  its  place,  and  for  store  animals,  which  perform  little 
work,  it  is  too  expensive.  Like  most  highl}^  concentrated 
fodders,  grain  is  somewhat  difficult   to   digest,  and  too 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDHSTG.  331 

large  quantities  may  easily  cause  disturbances  of  digestion, 
especially  if  not  properly  prepared. 

Composition. — The  grains  contain  the  three  groups  of 
organic  nutrients,  viz.,  albuminoids,  carbhydrates,  and  fat, 
in  large  quantities.  The  albuminoids  of  the  grains  have 
already  been  described  to  some  extent  (pp.  26-30).  The 
carbhydrates  consist  largely  of  starch,  the  various  grains 
containing  in  the  air-dry  state  about  50  to  60  per  cent,  of 
this  substance,  accompanied  by  a  small  amount  of  gum  and 
cellulose.  The  ether  extract  of  the  grains  consists  largely 
of  true  fat.  We  thus  see  that  the  organic  matter  of  the 
grains  consists  chiefly  of  substances  of  undoubted  nutritive 
value,  and  contams  little  waste  matter ;  as  a  consequence 
their  digestibility  is  high,  and  they  contain  a  large  amount 
of  nutriment  in  a  small  bulk. 

They  are  characterized  by  a  medium  nutritive  ratio,  the 
proportion  of  nitrogenous  to  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  be- 
ing about  1  :  6-8  or  in  maize  as  wide  as  1  :  10.  This  fact 
indicates  their  proper  use.  They  are  obviously  not  adapted 
to  increase  the  proportion  of  protein  in  a  ration  containing 
too  little  of  this  nutrient :  for  this  purpose  we  need  a  sub- 
stance containing  much  protein  and  but  a  small  amount  of 
carbhydrates  and  fat.  The  grains  find  their  application  in 
cases  where  it  is  desirable  to  give  a  ration  which,  while 
having  a  medimn  nutritive  ratio,  shall  contain  much  nu- 
triment in  a  small  bulk,  and  thus  save  digestive  labor  as 
explained  on  p.  228. 

For  example,  the  composition  of  the  digestible  portions 
of  oats  and  of  good  clover  hay  does  not  differ  greatly,  but 
there  is  no  question  which  is  the  more  valuable  fodder  for 
a  horse  from  which  severe  work  is  demanded. 

Variations  in  Composition. — Grain,  like  coarse  and 
green  fodder,  has  a  more  or  less  variable  composition, 


332  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

especiallj  as  regards  protein,  according  to  the  conditions 
under  which  it  is  grown  and  harvested  (soil,  manuring, 
climate,  weather,  variety,  degree  of  ripeness,  etc.),  although 
ripe  grain  of  any  particular  kind  is  more  constant  in  its 
composition  than  forage  crops.  Wheat  and  oats  appear  to 
be  more  variable  than  rye  or  barley ;  in  the  dry  matter  of 
American  winter  wheat  from  9.23  per  cent,  to  16.54  per 
cent,  of  protein  has  been  found  by  different  observers.  In 
spring  wheat  the  range  was  8.83  per  cent,  to  16.89  per 
cent.  In  some  late  experiments  in  Poppelsdorf,  the  per- 
centage of  protein  in  a  variety  of  wheat  already  rich  in 
this  substance  was  increased  from  16.3  in  the  unmanured 
wheat  to  17.6  by  an  abundant  manm-ing  with  superphos- 
phates, to  21.4  by  manuring  with  soluble  nitrogen  com- 
pounds (ammonia  salts  and  nitrates),  and  to  22.4  by  manur- 
ing with  phosphates  and  nitrogen  compounds  ;  the  protein 
of  the  straw  was  respectively  3.4  per  cent.,  3.7  per  cent., 
and  5.2  per  cent. 

Other  experimenters,  indeed,  have  not  been  able  to  show 
such  a  decided  effect  of  manuring  on  the  composition  of 
the  cereals,  and  this  effect  may  be,  according  to  circmn- 
stances,  either  increased  or  diminished,  or  even  entirely 
nullified  by  other  factors,  such  as  the  quality  of  the  soil, 
the  weather,  etc.  Still,  as  a  general  rule,  we  are  justified 
in  expecting  a  more  nitrogenous  grain  on  a  fruitful,  highly 
manured  soil  than  on  its  opposite  or  on  one  of  only  average 
quality. 

Wheat. — The  high  value  of  wheat  as  food  for  man  for- 
bids its  use  as  cattle  food  under  ordinary  circumstances. 
The  average  of  all  available  analyses  of  American  wheat 
is  as  follows  :  ^ 

*  Report  Conn.  Agl.  Expt.  Station,  1879,  p.  141. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


333 


Air  dry. 
Per  cent. 

Water 

free. 

Per  cent. 

Air  dry. 
Per  cent. 

Water 

free. 

Per  cent. 

Water 

10.72 

1.70 
11.82 

1.90 
13.24 

Crude  fibre . . . 
N.  fr.  extract. 
Fat 

•1 

•J 

75  76 

Ash 

84  86 

Protein 

No  determinations  of  the  digestibility  of  wheat  have 
yet  been  made. 

Rye. — But  one  analysis  of  American  rye  is  reported.* 
Wolff  gives  as  tlie  average  of  German  analyses : 

Water 14 . 3  per  cent. 

Ash 1.8  "      " 

Protein 11.0   "       " 

Cradefibre 3.5"      " 

Nitrogen-free  extract 67.4   "      " 

Fat. 2.0  "      " 

Like  wheat,  rye  is  chiefly  nsed  as  food  for  man.  No 
determinations  of  its  digestibility  are  reported. 

Oats. — In  oats,  as  in  wheat,  the  percentage  of  protein  is 
quite  variable,  and  is  largely  determined  by  the  thickness 
and  weight  of  the  hull,  compared  with  that  of  the  ker- 
nel. The  latter  is  generally  quite  rich  in  nitrogen,  and 
is  distinguished  by  a  comparatively  high  percentage  of  fat 
(5  to  7  per  cent.).  The  percentage  of  protein  in  the  whole 
gi'ain  is  somewhat  less  than  in  wheat,  the  average  being 
about  13  per  cent,  of  the  water-free  substance  in  the  latter, 
and  perhaps  11  per  cent,  in  the  former. 

The  quality  of  a  sample  of  oats  is  not  always  indicated 
by  the  weight  of  a  given  bulk,  and  it  would  doubtless  often 
be  advantageous  in  purchasing  large  quantities  of  so  impor- 

*  Report  Conn.  Ag'l,  Expt.  Station,  1879,  p.  141, 


334  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING. 

tant  a  fodder,  and  one  liable  to  vary  so  much,  to  have  at 
least  the  amount  of  protein  determined  by  chemical  analy- 
sis. Such  an  analysis,  of  course,  would  not  suffice  to  de- 
termine accurately  either  the  nutritive  or  commercial  value 
of  the  article ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  might  be  of  material 
assistance  in  forming  a  practical  estimate  of  the  feeding 
value  of  a  sample  of  oats  or  of  any  other  grain. 

In  a  concentrated  fodder  like  grain,  the  protein  is  the 
most  important  and  most  costly  ingredient,  as  well  as  the 
one  whose  amount  is  subject  to  the  greatest  variations,  and, 
other  things  being  equal,  the  more  protein  the  fodder  con- 
tains the  more  valuable  it  is  for  the  purposes  to  which  it  is 
applied.  In  conjunction  with  the  weight,  appearance,  etc., 
of  the  grain,  a  determination  of  the  protein  would  be  an 
important  factor  in  judging  of  its  quality,  and  would  have 
the  advantage  of  rapid  and  comparatively  easy  execu- 
tion. 

Digestibility. — The  digestibility  of  oats  has  been  largely 
determined  in  experiments  on  sheep,  though  recently  sev- 
eral experiments  have  been  made  on  their  digestibility  by 
the  horse.  With  the  exception  of  three  experiments,  the 
results  of  which  were  evidently  exceptional,  these  trials  have 
shown  a  very  uniform  digestibility  of  this  feeding-stuff,  and 
therefore  the  average  digestion  coefficients  may  be  consid- 
ered comparatively  trustworthy.  The  experiments  on  the 
horse  *  have  shown  that  this  animal  is  able  to  digest  oats,  as 
well  as  other  concentrated  fodders,  quite  as  completely  as 
sheep  do. 

Barley. — Barley  is  in  general  somewhat  poorer  in  pro- 
tein than  the  other  common  cereals,  and  the  more  so  the 
more  fully  and  uniformly  the  grains  are  developed,  the 

*  Landw.  Versuchs-Stationen,  XX.,  125,  and  XXI. ,  19,  and  Landw. 
Jahrbiicher,  VIII. ,  I.  Supplement,  p.  6. 


MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING.  335 

percentage  of  this  ingredient  ranging,  according  to  J.  Kiihn, 
from  6.2  to  18.3  per  cent.,  and  averaging  about  11  per 
cent. 

But  one  experiment  on  the  digestibility  of  barley  by 
ruminants  has  been  made,  viz.,  by  Schulze  and  Miircker,  in 
Weende,  on  sheep.  The  results  of  this  experiment  agree 
very  closely  with  those  which  have  been  obtained  in  several 
experiments  on  swine,  and  may  therefore  be  assumed  to  be 
at  least  tolerably  accm'ate.  As  is  usually  the  case,  the  pro- 
tein and  fat  were  slightly  better  digested  by  the  ruminants, 
while  as  regards  the  nitrogen-free  extract  the  advantage 
was  on  the  side  of  the  swine. 

Rice. — Rice  is  characterized  by  a  low  percentage  of 
protein  (about  7.5  per  cent.),  a  very  small  percentage  of 
fat,  and  a  large  proportion  of  starch.  No  experiments  on 
its  digestibility  have  been  made. 

Buck^wheat. — Buckwheat,  though  belonging  to  an  en- 
tirely different  botanical  family  from  the  true  grains  (cere- 
als), may  be  conveniently  classed  with  them  for  our  present 
purpose. 

The  percentage  of  protein  in  buckwheat  is  more  than 
that  in  rice,  but  less  than  that  in  the  other  cereals,  and  about 
the  same  as  in  maize.  It  contains  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  crude  fibre,  averaging  15  per  cent.,  most  of  which 
is  located  in  the  hull  or  outej'  covering,  and  has  rather  less 
nitrogen-free  extract  than  the  cereals. 

Maize  or  Indian  Corn. — The  cheapness,  healthfulness, 
digestibility,  and  great  fattening  qualities  of  this  feeding- 
stuff  cause  it  to  take  a  high  rank  among  the  grains.  As 
regards  chemical  composition,  the  innumerable  varieties 
which  are  known  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  sweet 
and  common  corn,  having  the  following  average  compo- 
sition : 


3.90  MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Average  Composition  of  American  Maize. — Water-Free. 


SWEET. 

COMMON. 

Average  of  eleven 
analyses. 

Average  of  fifty-two 
analyses. 

Ash 

2.1 

13.2 

2.3 

73.5 

8.9 
100.0 

1   7 

Protein. 

12  0 

Fibre 

1  9 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

78  7 

Fat 

5  7 

100.0 

"  The  greater  ricliness  of  sweet  corn  in  albuminoids  and 
fat  is  very  decided  and  indicates  a  higher  nutritive  \'ahie 
than  that  of  common  corn. 

"  The  sweet  corn  contained  on  the  average  S.6  per  cent. 
of  water,  and  the  common  contained  10.8  per  cent.,  but 
the  samples  were  unequally  dried,  and  the  analyses  prob- 
ably do  not  show  the  proportions  of  water  that  exist  in  corn 
in  bulk  as  found  in  the  crib  or  in  market. 

"  The  range  of  variation  in  the  several  ingredients  is 
shown  by  the  following  statement  of  the  lowest  and  high- 
est percentages  as  found  in  these  analyses :" 

Range  of  Composition  of  American  Maize. 


Sweet. 

Common. 

Ash 

1.6—  2.4 
10.2—15.9 

2.6-  8.0 
69.6-79.5 

5.8—10.2 

13—20 

Protein 

8.7—14  4 

Fibre 

0  3—30 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

75.2—82.2 

Fat 

4  4      7  8 

MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  337 

The  analyses  of  American  maize  thus  far  made  do  not 
show  any  essential  differences  in  composition  between 
flint  and  dent  corn,  nor  between  eastern  and  western 
corn. 

Common  maize  contains  somewhat  less  protein  and  more 
non-nitrogenons  matters  than  the  cereals,  and  has  a  wider 
nutritive  ratio.  It  is  therefore  not  as  valuable  as  the  latter 
in  cases  where  much  protein  is  required  in  the  food,  as  in 
case  of  heavily-worked  animals,  and  must  be  supplemented 
by  more  highly  nitrogenous  materials.  In  fattening,  on 
the  other  hand,  and  particularly  in  the  fattening  of  swine, 
where  a  rather  wide  nutritive  ratio  is  required,  it  produces 
excellent  results.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  compara- 
tively large  proportion  of  fat  which  it  contains  is  one 
cause  of  its  well-known  fattening  properties,  though  the 
effect  of  this  is  most  likely  not  as  great  as  is  sometimes 
thought. 

Numerous  digestion  experiments  on  hogs,  sheep,  and 
the  horse,  have  shown  that  maize  is  very  completely  di- 
gested by  all  these  animals.  The  results  obtained  on  sheep 
and  on  the  horse  were  substantially  accordant ;  those  on 
hogs,  three  in  number,  show  a  somewhat  greater  digesti- 
bility of  the  crude  protein,  but  it  is  questionable  whether 
this  will  be  found  to  be  generally  the  case. 

§  2.  Bye-Products  op  the  Grains. 

Since  it  is  generally  more  profitable  to  the  farmer  to  sell 
the  comparatively  high-priced  grains  than  to  use  them  for 
fodder,  it  comes  about  that  their  bye-products  find  an  ex- 
tensive application  as  fodder  in  place  of  the  grains  them- 
selves, e.  (/.,  the  bran  of  wheat  and  rye,  brewers'  grains  and 
malt  sprouts  fi'om  barley,  etc. 
15 


338  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Bran. — Bran  has  a  high  vahie  for  fodder,  as  is  shown 
both  bj  chemical  analysis  and  microscopical  examination ; 
the  latter,  indeed,  shows  most  strikingly  how  uneconomical 
is  usually  an  extended  use  of  grain  for  the  food  of  those 
animals  which  do  not,  like  the  horse,  demand  a  concen- 
trated fodder.  With  cattle,  particularly,  it  is  more  advan- 
tageous, as  a  rule,  to  feed  the  bran  than  the  grain  or  meal ; 
the  raising  of  calves  and  the  last  stages  of  fattening  form 
a  partial  exception  to  this  rule. 

If  we  investigate  microscopically  the  way  in  which  the 
several  nutrients  are  distributed  in  the  seeds  of  the  cereals, 
we  find  that  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds is  deposited  in  one  or  more  definite  layers  of  cells 
lying  directly  under  the  seed-vessel  ^  and  filled  with  fine 
grains  of  gluten.  AVheat,  rye,  oats,  and  maize,  have  only 
one  layer  of  protein-bearing  cells,  except  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  germ,  while  barley  has  three  such  layers  mider 
the  seed-vessel. 

In  the  manufacture  of  fiour,  the  inner  and  starchy  part 
of  the  grain  is  more  easily  pulverized  during  the  process 
of  grinding  tlian  the  tough  integuments.  The  latter  are 
torn  off,  carrying  wdth  them  portions  of  the  layer  of 
protein-bearing  cells  lying  next  to  them,  and  are  removed 
by  bolting,  constituting  bran  or  middlings.  As  a  conse- 
quence, the  bran  is  richer  in  protein  and  the  flour  poorer, 
than  the  whole  grain.  Thus,  the  average  composition  of 
American  wheat,  wheat  fiour,  and  bran,  in  the  water-free 
state,  is  as  follows : 


*  ' '  The  grains  are  properly  fruits.  Wheat  and  maize  consist  of  the 
seed  and  seed-vessel  closely  united.  Barley-grain,  in  addition  to  the 
seed-vessel,  has  the  petals  of  the  flower  or  inner  chaff,  and  oats  have, 
besides  these,  the  calyx  or  outer  chaff  adhering  to  the  seed." — ("  How 
Crops  Grow.") 


MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 


339 


Whole  wheat. 
Per  cent. 

Wheat  flour. 
Per  cent. 

0.67 

12.22 

87.11 

Wheat  bran. 
Per  cent. 

Ash 

1.90 
13.24 

84.86 

4.31 

Protein 

14.28 

Crude  fibre 1 

r  7.60 

Nitrogen-free  extract..  1- 
Fat J 

69.90 
.  3.91 

These  figures  show  most  plainly  how  uneconomical  it 
must  be,  under  most  circumstances,  to  use  the  costly  grains 
as  fodder.  Except  in  cases  where  a  very  concentrated 
food  is  required,  the  chief  value  of  the  grains  lies  in  the 
albuminoids  wdiich  they  contain,  since  the  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients  can  be  far  more  chiefly  supplied  in  roots  and 
coarse  fodder.  The  albuminoids,  how^ever,  are  contained 
in  the  cheaper  bran  in  considerably  larger  proportion,  and 
in  view  of  this  fact,  the  value  of  the  latter  as  fodder  be- 
comes obvious. 

Digestibility . — The  digestibility  of  bran  has  been  the 
subject  of  but  few  experiments,  but  it  seems  in  general  to 
be  fully  equal  to  that  of  the  grains.  The  digestibility  of 
wheat  bran  has  been  determined  with  sheep  and  oxen  ; 
that  of  rye  bran  only  wdth  swine. 

Bre"wers'  Grains. — In  the  preparation  of  malt  liquors 
from  grain,  the  starch  which  the  latter  contains  is  convert- 
ed into  sugar  by  the  action  of  a  peculiar  ferment  called 
diastase,  contained  in  the  malt,  and  this  sugar  is  then  fer- 
mented, and  yields  alcohol. 

In  this  process  it  is  chiefly  the  starch  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  extractive  and  flavoring  matters  which  is  withdrawn 
from  the  grain,  while  nearly  all  the  protein  is  left  be' 
hind.     As  a  consequence,  the  residue  is  relatively  richer 


340  MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 

in  nitrogen  tlian  the  grain,  as  is  shown  both  bj  analysis 
and  by  microscopical  examination,  the  latter  showing  the 
gluten  cells  intact,  while  the  starch  is  nearly  all  dissolved 
out  of  the  tissue  containing  it. 

Brewers'  grains  are  much  more  watery  than  the  original 
grain.  They  contain  about  24  per  cent,  of  dry  matter, 
and,  on  account  of  their  richness  in  digestible  albmninoids, 
have  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio.  They  seem  to  be  very 
agreeable  to  cattle,  and  are  an  excellent  fodder  for  fatten- 
ing or  for  milk,  while  they  are  not  adapted  for  animals 
that  have  to  perform  severe  work. 

Distillers'  Grains. — In  the  manfacture  of  distilled 
liquors,  the  first  stages  of  the  process  are  essentially  the 
same  as  in  the  preparation  of  malt  liquors,  but,  after  the 
fermentation,  the  mash  is  subjected  to  distillation  to  separate 
the  alcohol.  The  residue  remaining  in  the  still  constitutes 
distillers'  grains  or  "  slump."  This  has  much  the  same 
composition  as  brewers'  grains,  except  that  it  is  more 
watery,  containing  only  about  8  or  9  per  cent,  of  di*y  mat- 
ter. Like  brewers'  grains  it  has  lost  chiefly  non-nitrogenous 
matters.  It  consequently  has  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio,  and 
is  a  valuable  addition  to  fodder  poor  in  protein.  More- 
over, it  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  mineral  mat- 
ters, which  may  be  of  advantage  under  some  circum^ 
stances. 

Use. — Distillers'  grains  are  best  adapted  for  cattle,  and 
yield  excellent  results  in  fattening  or  feeding  for  milk, 
when  rightly  used.  For  sheep,  hogs,  and  horses  they  are 
not  well  suited. 

In  using  this  feeding- stuff,  its  watery  nature  should  not 
be  forgotten.  Its  relatively  large  proportion  of  protein 
renders  it  a  suitable  addition  to  a  fodder  deficient  in  this 
nutrient ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  health  of  the  ani- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  341 

mals  requires  the  addition  to  the  "  slump  "  of  some  dry 
coarse  fodder,  like  hay  or  straw.  A  poor  quality  of  coarse 
fodder  may  be  rendered  more  palatable  to  cattle  by  satu- 
rating it  with  distillers'  grains,  and  thus  the  wateriness  of 
the  one  fodder  and  the  poverty  of  the  other  as  regards 
protein  can  be  simultaneously  corrected. 

Used  in  this  way,  distillers'  grains  constitute  a  perfectly 
healthful  fodder.  Much  of  the  connnon  prejudice  against 
the  use  of  "  distillery  slops  "  apj)ears  to  be  occasioned  by 
their  irrational  application,  and  frequently  by  the  filthy 
surroundings  of  the  animals,  rather  than  by  anything  mju- 
rious  in  the  feeding-stuff  itself. 

Malt  Sprouts. — Another  bye-product  of  the  breweries 
is  malt  sprouts.  In  the  preparation  of  malt,  barley  is 
sprouted,  and  allowed  to  grow  till  the  radicle  attains  a 
length  equal  to  about  two-thirds  that  of  the  grain ;  then 
the  process  is  stopped  by  drying  the  malt,  and  the  radicles 
either  fall  off  of  themselves  or  are  removed  by  winnow- 
ing. These  constitute  malt  sprouts ;  they  are  essentially 
very  young  barley  plants.  Kow  we  have  seen  that,  as  a 
general  rule,  the  younger  a  plant  is  the  larger  is  the  pro- 
portion of  protein  which  it  contains,  and  malt  sprouts  are 
no  exception  to  the  rule.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  table 
in  the  Appendix,  they  contain  about  24=  per  cent,  of  crude 
protein,  and  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :  2.5. 

On  the  other  hand,  recent  investigations  have  shown 
that  they  contain  a  large  proportion  of  amides,  as  was 
indeed  to  be  expected  from  what  we  already  know  of  the 
functions  of  amides  in  germination.  Five  samples  ex- 
amined by  Kellner  -  gave,  by  Sachsse's  method,  the  follow- 
ing results  on  the  water-free  substance : 


*  Biedermann's  Central-Blatt,  Jahrg.  8,  p.  417. 


342 


MA]^UAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDIKG. 


Number. 

Total 
nitrogen. 
Per  cent. 

Albuminoid 
nitrogen. 
Per  cent. 

Amide 
nitrogen. 
Per  cent. 

Amide  nitrogen 
in  per  cent,  of 
total  nitrogen. 

1 

3.5oG 
4.213 
4.479 
5.080 
5.520 

2.734 
3.190 
2.873 
3.616 
4.102 

0.822 

1.023 
1.606 
1.414 
1.418 

23   1 

2 

24  3 

3 

35.9 

4 

28.1 

5 

25.7 

Malt  sprouts  serve  excellently  for  bringing  up  the  albu- 
minoids of  a  ration  composed  of  poorer  materials  to  the 
desired  standard,  and  are  a  favorite  fodder  for  young  ani- 
mals and  for  milk  and  fattening.  They  are  most  suitable 
for  cattle  and  swine.  On  account  of  their  dry,  brittle 
character,  they  are  not  well  adapted  for  feeding  directly, 
and  need  to  be  softened,  either  by  mixture  with  watery 
fodder  or  by  soaking  in  water. 


§  3.  The  Legumes. 

Composition. — The  seeds  of  the  leguniinosm  (beans, 
peas,  vetches,  etc.)  are  especially  distinguished  by  their 
richness  in  protein,  in  which  respect  they  exceed  all  other 
seeds.  Their  protein  consists  chiefly  of  the  legumin  de- 
scribed on  p.  28. 

The  percentage  of  protein  is  not  so  variable  in  the 
legumes  as  in  the  cereals.  The  amount  of  this  substance 
varies  from  about  22  per  cent,  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  dry 
substance,  beans,  and  especially  vetches,  being  generally 
somewhat  richer  than  peas.  The  composition  of  each  kind 
is  given  in  detail  in  the  table  in  the  Appendix. 

An  exception  to  the  range  of  variation  given  above  is 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  343 

found  in  tlie  lupine,  especially  in  tlie  seeds  of  tlie  yellow 
lupine,  in  whose  dry  matter  32-48  per  cent,  of  albuminoids 
has  been  found,  while  the  seeds  of  the  blue  lupine  are  not 
so  rich. 

The  very  large  amount  of  protein  (the  most  costly  nu- 
trient) contained  in  the  lupine,  together  with  the  fact, 
already  referred  to,  that  it  can  be  cultivated  on  light  soils, 
would  render  it  a  highly-prized  feeding-stuff,  were  it  not 
for  its  peculiar,  bitter,  disagreeable  taste,  and  the  injurious 
effects  of  the  alkaloids  w^liich  it  contains. 

E'aturally,  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  utilize  this 
valuable  and  comparatively  cheap  material  by  removing 
the  alkaloids,  and  thus  rendering  it  palatable  to  other  ani- 
mals than  sheep,  wdiich  are  the  only  animals  that  eat  the 
raw  grains  readily.  Various  methods  have  been  proposed, 
e.  ^.,  roasting,  or  treatment  with  water  to  dissolve  out  the 
bitter  matter.  More  effective  than  the  latter  is  treatment 
with  water  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  muriatic  acid  has 
been  added.  In  this  case,  however,  the  grain  nnist  be 
afterward  boiled  with  pure  water  to  which  a  little  soda 
has  been  added  to  neutralize  the  excess  of  acid  and  pre- 
vent its  purging  the  animals.  The  latter  process  is  rather 
costly,  and  all  these  methods  cause  a  not  inconsiderable  loss 
of  nutritive  matter,  amounting,  in  one  experiment,  to  7.3 
per  cent,  of  protein  and  6.3  percent,  of  extract. 

Digestibility. — The  digestibility  of  .beans  has  been 
made  the  subject  of  numerous  experiments  on  ruminants, 
most  of  which  have  yielded  fairly  accordant  results.  The 
Weende  experiments  on  oxen  gave  the  coefficient  84  for 
the  average  digestibility  of  the  protein,  the  most  important 
ingredient.  Later  and  rather  more  exact  experiments 
have  given  somewhat  higher  numbers.  Wolff's  experi- 
ments  on   the   horse,    already   several  times   alluded   to, 


3tl:J.  MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDINO. 

sliow  that  this  auiinal  digests  beans  as  completely  as  sheep 
do. 

The  digestibility  of  peas  has  only  been  determined  in 
experiments  on  swine.  The  results  agree  pretty  closely 
with  those  obtained  with  beans  in  expei-iments  on  rumi- 
nants. 

In  some  experiments  by  Ilellriegel  &  Lucanus  on  the 
digestibility  of  lupines  by  sheep,  the  coefficients  97  and  81 
for  protein  and  nitrogen-free  extract  were  obtained.  In 
later  experiments,  by  Stohmann,  fully  90  per  cent,  of  the 
protein  of  lupines  was  digested  by  goats ;  and  it  was  at  the 
same  time  observed  that  this  bye-fodder  aided  the  resorp- 
tion of  the  non-nitrogenous  constituents  of  meadow  hay. 

All  the  observations  hitherto  made  show  that  the  diges- 
tibility of  the  legumes  is  comparatively  great,  and  that,  on 
the  average,  at  least  for  peas  and  beans,  a  coefficient  of 
nearly  90  may  be  assumed  for  protein,  and  of  95  for  the 
nitrogen-free  extract. 

Uses. — Unlike  the  grains,  the  legumes  are  dispropor- 
tionately rich  in  protein,  and  may  therefore  be  appro- 
priately used  to  supplement  fodder  deficient  in  this  sub- 
stance and  to  bring  the  amount  of  albuminoids  in  a  ration 
up  to  the  desired  standard.  They  form  a  very  concen- 
trated fodder,  and,  on  account  of  their  richness  in  protein, 
are  well  adapted  for  working  animals  and  for  fattening  ; 
but  they  should,  if  possible,  form  only  a  part  of  the  grain 
ration.  For  milking  and  suckling  animals  they  are  less 
liked. 

Lupines,  when  not  submitted  to  some  treatment  to  re- 
move their  bitter  principle,  are  eaten  most  readily  and  with 
least  danger  of  ill-effects  by  sheep  and  goats,  while  horses 
become  accustomed  to  thetn  less  readily,  and  cattle  hardly 
at  all. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING,  346 


§4.   Oil  Seeds  and  Oil  Cake. 

Oil  Seeds. — The  seeds  of  certain  plants,  of  which  the 
most  common  are  flax,  rape  (or  colza),  and  cotton,  contain 
large  quantities  of  oil — flax  containing  30-40  per  cent., 
rape  35-4:5  per  cent.,  and  cotton  about  30  per  cent. — and 
are  commercial  sources  of  oil.  These  seeds  are  also  rich 
in  albuminoids,  but  they  are  not  often  used  as  fodder  on 
account  of  their  high  price.  Flax,  however,  is  sometimes 
gathered  when  still  unripe,  in  order  to  obtain  a  better 
quality  of  fibre,  and  in  that  case  the  seeds  are  compara- 
tively poor  in  oil,  and  their  price  is  so  much  lower  that  it 
would  doubtless  often  be  advantageous  to  use  them  for 
feeding.  A  fodder  for  young  animals,  for  milk,  or  for 
fattening,  if  deficient  in  fat,  can  be  essentially  improved 
by  such  an  addition,  provided  that  the  quantity  of  fat 
is  not  made  too  great.  Generally,  when  it  is  desired  to 
add  fat  to  a  ration,  it  can  be  effected  to  better  advantage 
in  this  way  than  by  the  addition  of  pure  oil.  It  must, 
however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  seeds  contain  also 
large  quantities  of  protein. 

Digestibility. — No  direct  experiments  have  yet  been 
made  on  the  digestibility  of  oil  seeds.  It  may,  however, 
be  assumed,  until  we  have  better  data,  to  be  the  same  as 
that  of  the  corresponding  kinds  of  oil  cake. 

Oil  Cake. — The  high  price  of  oil  seeds  prevents  their 
general  use  as  a  fodder.  They  are  chiefly  applied  to  the 
production  of  oil,  and  only  the  residue  from  this  manufac- 
ture is  used  for  feeding  purposes. 

The  oil  is  generally  obtained  by  subjecting  the  seeds  to 
hydraulic  pressure,  by  which  a  large  part  of  the  oil  is 
forced  out,  while  most  of  the  albuminoids  remain  behind. 
15* 


346  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDIiq^G. 

The  change  effected  in  the  composition  of  the  material  is 
analogous  to  that  which  takes  place  in  brewers'  grains,  viz., 
a  removal  of  the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients,  here  fat,  while 
the  greater  part  of  the  albuminoids  remains. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  resulting  oil  cake  must 
have  a  high  nutritive  value,  since  it  contains  all  the  protein 
of  the  original  seed  and  that  portion  of  the  oil  which  can- 
not be  removed  by  pressure.  Its  nutritive  ratio  is  nar- 
rower than  before,  and  it  is  better  adapted  for  adding 
protein  to  a  ration,  since  larger  quantities  of  it  can  be  used 
without  danger  of  giving  too  much  oil.  At  the  same  time, 
it  is  a  highly  concentrated  fodder,  and,  like  all  such  mate- 
rials, must  be  used  with  caution,  and  only  as  a  bye-fodder 
to  supply  the  deficiencies  of  poorer  materials. 

Composition. — The  composition  of  oil  cake  will,  of 
course,  vary  according  to  the  completeness  with  which  the 
oil  is  extracted.  The  greater  the  pressure  to  which  it  is 
subjected,  the  less  oil  and  the  more,  relatively,  of  albumi- 
noids will  it  contain.  A  method  of  extracting  the  oil 
which  has  lately  come  into  use  to  some  extent  consists  in 
treating  the  ground  seeds  with  benzol  or  bisulphide  of 
carbon,  which  dissolve  the  oil.  The  residue  from  this 
process  is  poorer  in  oil  and  correspondingly  richer  in  pro- 
tein than  that  from  the  ordinary  process  of  pressmg, 
and  it  seems  probable  that  it  would  have  advantages  as 
fodder  over  the  latter.  It  is  seldom  that  fat  is  deficient  in 
the  food  of  our  domestic  animals ;  but  it  is  often  desirable 
to  increase  its  protein,  and  by  means  of  the  extracted  oil 
cake  we  could  accomplish  this  without  unduly  increasing 
the  amount  of  oil. 

The  average  of  all  analyses  of  American  oil  cake  yet 
made  are  as  follows,  calculated  on  the  water-free  sub- 
stance ; 


MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


347 


Linseed 

cake. 

Per  cent. 

Cotton- 
seed cake. 
Per  cent. 

Linseed 

cake. 

Per  cent. 

Cotton- 
seed cake. 
Per  cent. 

Ash 

7.13 

32.48 
9.70 

7.33 

46.17 
7.98 

N.  f r.  extract. . . . 
Fat 

37.66 
13.03 

19.98 

18.54 

Crude  fibre ...... 

But  one  sample  (of  linseed  cake)  contained  less  than  lO.per 
cent,  of  fat ;  but  in  that,  one  the  amount  was  only  3.15  per 
cent.,  while  that  of  the  protein  was  39.92  per  cent.,  show- 
ing that  the  sample  had  been  extracted  in  some  manner. 
Cotton-seed  cake,  it  will  be  seen,  is  considerably  richer  in 
protein  and  fat  and  poorer  in  nitrogen -free  extract  than 
linseed  cake,  and  must  have  a  correspondingly  higher 
feeding  value. 

Palm-nut  cake  contains  less  albuminoids  and  more  nitro- 
gen-free extract  than  linseed  or  cotton-seed  cake,  while  the 
percentage  of  fat  is  about  the  same.  It  forms  an  excel- 
lent fodder,  being  very  palatable  and  producing  excellent 
results. 

Digestibility. — The  numbers  given  in  the  Appendix 
for  the  digestibility  of  linseed  cake  are  the  average  results 
of  numerous  experiments  on  sheep,  goats,  and  oxen,  made 
in  Hohenheim,  Halle,  and  Hockern,  respectively,  and 
agreeing  well  with  each  other. 

The  digestibility  of  cotton-seed  cake  has  been  tested  in 
experiments  on  sheep  in  Hohenheim.  The  material  used 
came  from  Egypt,  and  was  of  poor  quality  compared  with 
that  sold  in  our  markets.  It  contained  numerous  fi-agments 
of  leathery  pods,  which  brought  the  amount  of  crude  fibre 
up  to  27.61  per  cent.,  while  it  contained  only  26.24  per 
cent,  of  protein.      It  seems  somewhat  doubtful  whether 


348  MANUAL  OF  OATTLE-FEEDING. 

results  obtained  on  such  material  would  be  fully  applicable 
to  our  cotton-seed  meal ;  but  these  are  the  only  experi- 
ments yet  made,  and  we  must  accept  their  results  till  better 
are  available. 

The  digestibility  of  palm-nut  meal  has  been  tested  in 
Mockern,  in  experiments  on  cows,  and  in  Hohenheim,  on 
sheep.  The  results  showed  that  tlie  digestibility  of  this 
feeding-stuff  is  great,  ranging  alcove  90  for  all  the  ingre- 
dients. It  is  also  distinguished  for  its  palatability  and  its 
favorable  action  on  milk-production  and  fattening. 

Uses. — Unlike  most  of  the  feeding- stuffs  hitherto  con- 
sidered, the  various  kinds  of  oil  cake  are  excessively  rich 
in  protein  and  deficient  in  non-nitrogenous  nutrients.  This 
is  especially  the  case  with  those  which  have  been  prepared 
by  some  process  of  extraction,  the  nutritive  ratio  being 
sometimes  as  narrow  as  1:1.  Tlie  moi'e  common  kinds 
of  oil  cake,  while  containing  considerable  fat,  and  hence 
having  a  wilder  nutritive  ratio,  are  still  characterized  by  a 
large  excess  of  protein. 

Obviously,  then,  oil  cake  is  particularly  valuable  as  a 
source  of  protein  and  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  amount 
of  this  substance  in  a  ration.  Many  of  the  cheaper  forms 
of  coarse  fodder,  while  furnishing  large  quantities  of  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients,  are  deficient  in  protein.  This  defi- 
ciency may  be  readily  supplied  by  the  addition  to  them  of 
a  comparatively  small  amount  of  oil  cake,  and  thus  the  de- 
ficiencies and  redundancies  of  the  two  fodders  be  made  to 
supplement  each  other.  For  example,  it  would  not  be 
difficult  to  compound  from  straw  and  oil  cake  a  mixture 
which  should  contain  the  same  proportions  of  digestible 
matters  as  the  best  hay,  and  in  most  cases  at  a  cost  con- 
siderably less  than  that  of  the  latter.  Moreover,  the  addi- 
tion of  such  a  nitrogenous  bye-fodder  to  the  straw  would 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  349 

probably  secure  a  more  perfect  digestion  of  the  straw  it- 
self. 

The  value  of  oil  cake  for  feeding,  when  properly  used, 
particularly  in  feeding  for  milk  and  in  fattening,  is  not 
easily  overestimated.  Cotton-seed  cake  or  meal,  espe- 
cially, deserves  the  attention  of  our  farmers.  It  is  the 
richest  of  the  common  kinds  of  oil  cake,  is  readily  obtain- 
able, and,  after  passing  through  the  body  of  the  animal, 
still  retains  nearly  all  its  value  as  a  fertilizer,  in  which 
respect  it  is  nearly  equal  to  average  fish  scrap. 

As  already  stated,  palm-nut  cake  is  less  rich  in  protein 
than  the  other  varieties  of  oil  cake,  but  it  nevertheless  con- 
tains a  considerable  proportion  of  that  substance.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  specially  adapted  for  milk  cows,  and  does  not 
impart  any  undesirable  properties  to  milk  or  butter. 

Oil  cake  in  general  is  chiefly  used  for  milk  animals  and 
for  fattening,  experience  having  shown  that  for  work- 
ing animals  it  cannot  take  the  place  of  grain.  It  is  hence 
particularly  valuable  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  while  for 
horses  it  is  little  used. 

g  5.  Animal  Products. 

Flesh  Meal. — A  feeding-stuff  which  has  lately  found 
extensive  use  in  Europe,  and  which,  both  in  virtue  of  its 
richness  in  protein  and  its  easy  digestibility,  ranks  as  the 
most  concentrated  of  fodders,  is  the  so-called  American 
flesh  meal. 

It  consists  of  the  dried  and  ground  residue  from  the 
manufacture  of  Liebig's  Extract  of  Meat,  in  South  America : 
it  contains,  in  the  air-dry  state,  ten  to  thirteen  per  cent,  of 
water,  and  in  the  dry  substance  eighty-two  to  eighty-three 
per  cent,  of  protein,  along  with  thirteen  to  fourteen  per 


B50  MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

cent,  of  fat.  It  has  tlius  far  been  used  chiefly  for  swine, 
though  to  some  extent  for  other  animals. 

In  experiments  on  the  former,  by  Wolff  (see  page  276), 
in  which  the  flesh  meal  was  fed  hi  quantities  of  one-half 
to  one  pound  per  day,  along  with  potatoes,  the  average  di- 
gestibihty  of  the  flesh  meal  was  found  to  be : 

Protein 97  per  cent. 

Fat 86       " 

Total  organic  matter 92        " 

Flesh  meal  being  so  digestible,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  it  must 
exert  an  excellent  effect,  especially  when  used  in  smaU 
quantities,  perhaps  half  a  pound  per  day  and  head,  as  an 
addition  to  a  fodder  otherwise  poor  in  protein ;  that  is, 
when  used  to  bring  up  the  quantity  of  protein  in  the  total 
fodder  to  the  desired  standard. 

Flesh  meal  is  the  more  valuable,  practically,  for  swme, 
because  by  means  of  it  the  animals  can  be  induced  to  eat 
large  quantities  of  other  fodder,  in  particular  potatoes. 
Moreover,  the  addition  of  a  nitrogenous  bye-fodder  to  a 
feeding-stuff  containing  nmch  starch,  like  potatoes,  con- 
tributes essentially  to  ensure  the  complete  digestion  of  the 
latter.     (Compare  page  282.) 

The  use  of  flesh  meal  is  not  confined  to  swine,  however  ; 
it  has  also  been  used  with  good  results  for  milk  cows  and 
fur  fattening  cattle.  The  animals  at  first  generally  refuse 
to  eat  the  fiesh  meal,  but  when  it  is  fed  in  small  amounts, 
and  gj-adually  increased  to  2  to  3  lbs.  per  day,  they  soon 
become  accustomed  to  it  and  come  to  eat  it  even  greedily. 
Sheep  have  in  most  cases  obstinately  refused  it,  but  oc- 
casionally they  have  been  accustomed  to  it,  and  it  has  pro- 
duced good  results.  The  digestibility  in  these  cases  has 
been  found  to  be  fully  as  great  in  Wolff's  experunents  on 
swine. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING.  351 

Some  interesting  experiments  have  recently  been  made 
by  Wolff, '^  to  determine  the  nutritive  value  of  the  protein 
of  flesh  meal  as  compared  with  vegetable  protein.  The 
experiments  were  made  on  swine.  The  vegetable  protein 
was  fiu-nished  in  the  form  of  peas,  to  which  a  small  amount 
of  oil  was  added;  to  the  flesh  meal  enough  pure  starch 
was  added  to  give  the  mixture  nearly  the  composition  of 
the  peas.  In  each  case  four  kilogrannnes  of  potatoes  per 
day  and  head  were  fed.  The  experiments  continued  182 
days ;  their  results,  while  not  entirely  decisive,  showed  that 
practically  the  same  gain  of  live-weight  was  produced  by 
the  one  ration  as  by  the  other  under  like  conditions,  and 
thus  indicated  that  animal  and  vegetable  protein  have  an 
equal  nutritive  value. 

All  these  trials  are  very  interesting  as  showing  that  the 
animal  organism  is  indifferent  to  the  source  of  the  protein 
which  it  receives,  and  that  the  difference  between  the 
herbivora  and  carnivora  is  not  that  the  one  can  eat  only 
vegetable  and  the  other  only  animal  food,  but  that  the 
digestive  apparatus  of  the  former  is  adapted  to  large 
masses  of  fodder,  while  the  comparatively  short  alimentary 
canal  of  the  latter  requires  a  very  concentrated  food.  The 
herbivora  are  capable  of  digesting  and  utilizing  animal 
protein,  if  it  is  mixed  with  a  suitable  amount  of  coarse 
fodder,  and,  on  the  other  hajid,  it  is  a  well  known  fact 
that  the  dog  and  cat,  both  carnivorus  animals,  can  subsist 
on  the  more  concenti-ated  forms  of  vegetable  food. 

Fish  Guano  or  Fish  Scrap.— The  residue  from  the 
preparation  of  oil  from  various  kinds  of  fish,  which  is  ex- 
tensively used  as  a  fertilizer  under  the  name  of  fish  guano 
or  fish  scrap,  has  also  been  tested  as  a  feeding-stuff,  with 


♦Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VIII. ,  I.  Supplement,  223. 


352  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

favorable  results.  Tlie  German  experiments  have  been 
made  on  the  so-called  Norwegian  fish  guano,  which  is 
stated  to  contain  about  2  per  cent,  of  fat  and  12  to  15  per 
cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  must  therefore  be  a  different 
preparation  from  that  sold  in  our  markets,  which  generally 
contains  from  Y  to  15  per  cent,  of  fat  and  6  to  S  per  cent, 
of  phosphoric  acid. 

The  fij'st  experiments  were  made  on  sheep  by  Weiske,* 
and  it  was  foimd  that  the  fish  guano  constituted  a  very 
good  bye-fodder  which  had  the  advantage  over  flesh  meal 
that  it  was  eaten  more  readily  by  the  animals.  Fully  a 
third  of  the  nitrogenous  matter  of  the  fish  guano  consisted 
of  gelatigenous  substances,  which  are  not  fully  equal  to  the 
albuminoids  as  food  (see  p.  162);  but  the  experiments 
showed  that,  on  accoimt  of  its  easy  and  great  digestibilitv, 
the  fish  gave  an  even  better  nutritive  effect  than  a  ration 
of  hay  and  oats  containing  the  same  amount  of  crude  pro- 
tein. The  digestibility  of  the  fish  guano  was  not  accurately 
determined  in  this  investigation,  but  it  was  estimated  that 
from  77  to  83  per  cent,  of  its  nitrogenous  matter  w^as 
digested. 

Later  experiments  by  Kellner,f  also  on  sheep,  gave  a 
digestion  coefficient  of  90  for  the  total  nitrogenous  sub- 
stance, and  showed  that  at  least  75  per  cent,  of  the  gela- 
tigenous matter  of  the  fish  was  digested.  It  was  also 
found  that  the  phosphoric  acid  which  is  present  in  large 
quantities  in  fish,  although  not  digested  to  any  gi-eat  ex- 
tent, was  made  more  soluble  by  passing  through  the  di- 
gestive apparatus  and  thus  acquired  an  increased  manurial 
value.     When  we  add  to  this  the  fact  that  the  nitrogen, 


♦Jour.  f.  Landw.,  XXIV.,  265. 

f  Landw.  Versuchs-Stationen,  XX. ,  423. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING.  353 

after  liaving  fulfilled  its  functions  in  the  body,  is  nearly  all 
excreted  in  the  urine  in  a  form  quite  as  available  for  vege- 
tation as  before,  the  gain  attainable  by  using  the  fish  as 
fodder  becomes  plain. 

Little  experience  has  yet  been  had  concerning  the  effect 
of  fish  on  the  quality  of  animal  products.  It  is  perhaps  to 
be  anticipated  that  it  would  injuriously  affect  the  flavor  of 
milk,  but  it  seems  probable  that  it  would  form  an  excellent 
fodder  for  fattening.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
used  as  fodder  to  any  extent  in  this  country.  In  the  "  Re- 
port of  the  Secretary  of  the.  Maine  Board  of  Agriculture  " 
for  1864,  some  account  is  given  of  its  use  as  fodder  for 
sheep,  hogs,  and  fowls,  and  in  subsequent  reports  of  the 
same  board  its  use  is  again  mentioned,  but  the  writer  is 
not  aware  that  it  has  elsewhere  become  a  recognized  article 
of  cattle  food.  In  Norway,  fish  is  said  to  be  used  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  as  food  for  cattle,  and  in  a  book  on  Ice- 
land, published  over  one  hundred  years  ago,*  the  use  of 
fish  for  feeding  cows  is  mentioned. 

It  would  be  of  interest  to  test  the  value  of  this  feeding- 
stuff  further,  and  also  to  experiment  on  the  use  of  fish 
guano  from  which  the  oil  is  more  completely  extracted 
than  from  the  common  article,  e.  g.,  that  produced  by 
Adamson's  or  Goodale's  process. 

Dried  Blood  and  Meat.-^A  few  experiments  on  this 
material  as  a  feeding-stuff  have  been  made  by  Wildt.f 
The  material  contained  91.87  per  cent,  of  protein,  and  the 
digestion  coefficient  for  this  substance  was  found  to  be  for 
swine  72  and  for  sheep  62,  the  rest  of  the  fodder  being  in 
one  case  potatoes  and  in  the  other  barley  straw. 

*  "Natural  History  of  Iceland,"  by  N.  Horrebow,  London,  1752. 
fLandw.    Jahi-biicher,   VL,    177,    and   Landw.    Versuchs-Stationen, 


354  MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 

The  dried  blood  was  very  hard  and  solid,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  by  finer  grinding  and  snilable  preparation,  such 
as  soaking  in  water  or  cooking,  a  greater  digestibility  could 
be  reached.  The  portion  actually  digested  by  the  swine 
seemed  to  exert  the  same  nutritive  effect  as  an  equal  amount 
of  vegetable  protein  in  the  form  of  peas. 

In  this  country,  dried  blood  and  meat  scrap  have  been 
used  in  feeding  trials  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Sanborn,*  with  favor- 
able results. 

The  chief  value  of  all  these  materials  lies  in  their  high 
percentage  of  protein,  and  the  proper  use  of  such  feeding- 
stuffs  is  as  an  addition  to  fodder  poor  in  protein,  as  was 
explained  in  the  section  on  oil  cake.  The  choice  between 
the  various  kinds  of  nitrogenous  bye-fodders  will  be  deter- 
mined by  various  circumstances,  such  as  their  palatability, 
dietetic  effect,  influence  on  the  quality  of  the  products,  cost, 
etc.,  and  must  vary  in  different  cases,  but  the  principle 
underlying  their  use  is  always  the  same. 

Bye-products  from  Milk. — The  chief  of  these  is  the 
whey,  from  the  manufacture  of  cheese,  which  is  chiefly 
used  for  hogs. 

The  manufacture  of  cheese  consists  essentially  in  coagu- 
lating the  casein  of  the  milk  by  means  of  rennet.  The 
curd  thus  formed  encloses  in  itself  much  of  the  fat  of  the 
milk,  and  the  resulting  whey  contains  about  1  per  cent,  of 
protein,  4  to  6  per  cent,  of  milk  sugar,  and  0.3  to  0.6  per 
cent,  of  fat.  The  nutritive  ratio  is,  therefore,  not  very 
wide,  though  it  is  variable,  according  to  the  completeness 
with  which  the  albuminoids  are  separated  in  the  curd. 
Water,  of  course,  is  the  chief  ingredient,  amomiting  to 
about  90  per  cent.,  or  over. 


■  Farm  experiments  at  the  New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  355 

For  hogs,  whey  is  a  very  palatable  and  excellent  fodder, 
especially  if  its  very  watery  consistence  be  reduced  some- 
what by  the  addition  of  grain.  Indeed,  many  feeding- stuffs, 
like  bran  or  oats,  which  of  themselves  are  less  adapted  to 
these  animals,  seem  to  be  better  utilized  when  thus  fed 
with  whey  than  when  used  alone. 

Far  more  nutritious  than  whey  are  skimmed  milk  and 
sour  milk,  the  first  having  lost  chiefly  fat  and  the  second 
nothing.  They  have  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio,  and  with 
their  help  large  quantities  of  potatoes  and  other  feeding- 
stuffs  poor  in  protein  can  be  very  completely  digested  and 
utilized. 

All  the  constituents  of  milk  may  be  regarded  as  wholly 
and  easily  digestible,  except,  perhaps,  w^hen  it  forms  the 
exclusive  food,  when  small  quantities  may  escape  digestion 
or  resorption. 

§6.  Tubers  and  Roots. 

General  Properties.— The  feeding-stuffs  which  we 
have  hitherto  considered  in  this  chapter  either  have  a 
medium  nutritive  ratio,  or  contain  an  excess  of  protein. 
Tubers  and  roots,  on  the  other  hand,  contain  an  excess  of 
the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients,  starch  predominating  in  the 
former,  and  sugar  and  pectin  in  the  latter.  As  we  regarded 
other  feeding-stuffs  as  concentrated  because  they  contained 
in  a  small  bulk  large  quantities  of  digestible  protein,  so  we 
may  call  these  also  concentrated,  because  tHey  contain,  in  a 
small  bulk,  large  quantities  of  digestible  carbhydrates. 

Of  the  tubers,  the  one  of  greatest  importance  is  the 
potato.  It  is  a  thickened  underground  stem,  in  which 
large  quantities  of  starch  liave  been  laid  up  to  serve  as 
food  for  the  new  branches,  leaves,  and  fruit  which  are  to 
develop  from  it.      In  like  manner,  the  roots  (turnips,  beets, 


85(^  MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 

carrots,  etc.)  are  reservoirs  o£  food  for  the  joimg  plants, 
but  are,  liowever,  really  roots  and  not  stems. 

Besides  their  large  content  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients, 
these  feeding- stuffs  contain  a  large  amount  of  water,  viz., 
on  the  average : 

Potatoes 75 .0  per  cent. 

Sugar  beets 81.5  " 

Carrots 85.9  " 

Rutabagas 87 . 0  '  * 

Mangolds 88.0  " 

Parsnips 88.3  " 

Turnips 91.5  " 

Potatoes  are  decidedly  less  watery  than  roots,  while,  of 
the  latter,  turnips  contain  the  most  water  and  the  others 
about  the  same  quantity,  the  slight  differences  shown  by 
the  above  averages  of  all  trustworthy  analyses  being  of  no 
significance. 

These  considerations  indicate  clearly  the  proper  method 
and  limits  of  the  use  of  root  crops  as  fodder.  Just  as  the 
feeding-stuffs  previously  considered  are  adapted  to  furnish 
albuminoids,  and  so  to  narrow  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a 
ration,  so  these  are  admirably  adapted  to  furnish  carbhy- 
drates  in  an  easily  digestible  form,  and  to  widen  the  nutri- 
tive ratio. 

Neither  kind  of  fodder  can  be  used  alone.  Each  can 
supply  the  wants  of  the  organism  in  one  particular  di- 
rection, and  one  only.  In  order  to  obtain  good  results 
from  roots,  they  must  be  fed  along  with  other  and  more 
nitrogenous  fodder.  For  this  there  are  two  reasons — first, 
roots  are  unable  of  themselves  to  supply  enough  protein 
for  the  needs  of  the  animal,  containing  as  they  do  but  a 
trifling  quantity  ;  and  second,  without  the  addition  of  more 
protein  to  the  ration  much  of  the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients 


MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING.  357 

of  the  roots  is  liable  to  escape  digestion.  Still  further, 
roots  are  a  very  watery  fodder,  and  do  not  possess  the 
necessary  volume  to  fit  them  to  serve  as  the  exclusive  food 
of  ruminating  animals.  Hence,  they  must  have  added  to 
them  a  certain  amount  of  hay,  straw,  or  other  dry  fodder, 
as  well  as  some  nitrogenous  bye-fodder.  A  ration  might 
be  compounded,  for  instance,  from  mangolds  and  oil  cake, 
which  should  contain  protein,  fat,  and  carbhydrates,  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  and  in  the  right  proportions  to  supply  the 
demands  of  a  milk  cow ;  but  it  would  scarcely  be  regarded 
as  suitable  for  such  an  animal. 

With  hogs  the  case  is  different.  Potatoes,  especially, 
seem  to  agree  excellently  with  these  animals,  and  when 
enough  of  some  substance  rich  in  protein,  such  as  flesh 
meal,  is  added,  to  establish  a  suitable  nutritive  ratio  and 
ensure  the  digestion  of  the  starch,  they  produce  excellent 
results. 

Proportion  of  Non-protein. — Comparatively  recent 
investigations  have  shown  that  a  large  part  of  the  nitro- 
genous matter  of  tubers  and  roots  consists  of  various  forms 
of  "non-protein,"  among  which  nitrates  and  amides  are 
particularly  abundant. 

Various  experimenters  have  noticed  the  occurrence  of 
amides  or  related  bodies,  as  well  as  of  nitrates  and  ammo- 
nia salts,  in  beets,  but  the  first  thorough  investigations  of 
the  nitrogenous  constituents  of  fodder  beets  were  those  of 
Schulze  &  Uricli.  In  their  first  investigation  "^  they  con- 
firmed the  fact  already  known,  that  beets  contain  a  rela. 
tively  large  but  variable  quantity  of  nitrates,  correspond- 
ing,  in  their  experiments,  to  from  10  per  cent,  to  47  pei 
cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen,  and  also  found  a  very  consider- 

*  Landw.  Versucha-Stationen,  XVUI. ,  296. 


358 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


able  quantity  of  amides,  while  only  21.6  to  38.9  per  cent 
of  the  total  nitrogen  belonged  to  albuminoids. 

The  following  statement  of  their  results  on  one  sample 
will  serve  to  g-ive  an  idea  of  aU  : 


Per  cent,  of 
fresh  substance. 

Per  cent,  of 
total  nitrogen. 

Total  nitrogen 

0.2390 

100  00 

Nitrogen  in  soluble  albuminoids. . 
"         insoluble          " 
"         amides 

0.0358 
0.0158 
0.0857 
0.1053 
0.0050 

14.98 

6.61 

35  86 

"         nitrates 

44  06 

"        ammonia  salts 

2.09 

Error 

0.2476 
0.0086 

103.60 
3.60 

In  their  second  paper,*  the  same  authors  showed  that 
among  the  amide-like  bodies  contained  in  beets  was  ghita- 
min,  and  a  trifling  amount  of  asparagin.  They  also  in- 
vestigated the  functions  of  the  amides,  with  the  results 
already  stated  on  page  37. 

A  considerable  amount  of  non-albuminoid  nitrogen  has 
also  been  found  in  the  potato  by  Schulze  &  Marckert* 
and  by  Ivreusler,:^  and  more  recently  Schulze  &  Barbieri  § 
have  published  more-  extended  investigations  of  five  sorts 
of  potatoes,  which  showed  that  the  nitrogen  of  the  fresh 
substance  was  distributed  as  follows : 


*  Landw.  Versuchs- Station  en,  XX.,  193. 
f  Jour,  of  Landw.,  1872,  p.  06. 
I  See  the  paper  by  Schulze  &  Barbieri, 
§  Landw..  Versuchs- Stationen,  XXL,  63. 


MANCTAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING, 


359 


Nitrogen  of 
insoluble 

albuminoids. 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen  of 

soluble 

albuminoids. 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen  of 
amides. 
Per  cent. 

Nitrogen  of  un- 
known com- 
pounds. 
Per  cent. 

I 

0.069 
0.046 
0.058 
0.047 
0.087 

0.143 
0.157 
0.080 
0.115 
0.147 

0.125 
0.118 
0.143 
0.150 
0.100 

0.012 

II 

0.019 

Ill   

0.010 

IV 

0.024 

V 

0.026 

The  distribution  of  the  nitrogen  between  protein  and 
non-protem  was,  therefore : 


Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Non  protein. 
Per  cent. 

i 

Protein. 
Per  cent. 

Non-protein. 
Per  cent. 

I 

60.7 

59.7 

47.4 

39.3 
40.3 
52.6 

liv 

48.2 
65.2 

51.8 

II 

IV 

34.8 

Ill 

Beets  and  potatoes  appear  to  be  the  only  root-crops 
whose  nitrogenous  constituents  have  been  investigated,  but 
it  is  highly  probable  that  other  roots '  and  tubers  also  con- 
tain considerable  amounts  of  amides.  Naturally,  the  bye- 
products,  such  as  "  potato  slump,"  beet-root  molasses,  etc., 
are  also  liable  to  contain  the  same  or  derived  bodies. 

Tubers. — Potatoes. — Tlie  composition  of  potatoes  is 
largely  determined  by  the  vai'iety  and  by  various  ex- 
ternal circumstances,  such  as  soil,  weather,  and  manuring. 
They  may  contain  from  18  to  30  per  cent,  of  dry  matter, 
from  1.3  to  4.5  per  cent,  of  protein,  and  from  12  to  27  per 
cent,  of  starch. 

The  richer  a  potato  is  in  starch  the  poorer  it  generally 


360  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

is  in  protein  ;  the  more  watery  it  is  the  less  is  its  per- 
centage of  starch,  and  tlie  greater,  as  a  rule,  is  the  amount 
of  protein,  and  usually  also  of  ash. 

When  normally  developed,  the  potato  contains  at  least 
25  per  cent,  of  dry  matter,  and  the  nutritive  ratio  is  1  :  10 
-12.  Grown  in  a  very  rich  soil  or  in  a  wet  clay,  the  same 
variety  of  potatoes  contains  far  less  starch,  but  is  richer  in 
protein  than  when  grown  in  a  sandy  soil  or  a  sandy  loam. 
A  soil  rich  in  hiunus  sometimes  produces  much  larger 
potatoes  than  a  sandy  soil,  but  their  content  of  starch  is 
generally  less  than  that  of  medium-sized  tubers  grown  in 
the  same  soil. 

This  variation  in  the  percentage  of  starch  according  to 
the  size  of  the  tubers,  vanishes,  the  more  closely  the  soil 
approaches  the  sandy  or  loamy  character,  so  that  in  po- 
tatoes grown  in  such  soils  the  content  of  starch  often  in- 
creases with  the  size,  especially  if  the  smaller  ones  are  not 
fully  ripe. 

It  is  also  well  known  that  the  manuring  exercises  an 
important  influence  on  the  quality  and  chemical  composi- 
tion of  the  potato.  Accordnig  to  one  observation,  e.  g., 
the  same  variety  of  potatoes  contained  2.27  per  cent,  of 
protein  when  manured  with  potash  and  lime,  and  4.41:  per 
cent,  when  heavily  manured  with  carbonate  of  ammonia. 

The  same  thing,  however,  is  true  of  the  potato  as  of 
other  crops,  viz.,  that  the  influence  of  the  manuring  on  the 
quality  of  the  crop  varies  according  to  the  other  influences 
which  act  with  it,  such  as  soil,  weather,  and  method  of 
culture.  According  to  whether  these  aid  or  hinder  the 
action  of  a  manure  or  chemical  fertilizer  on  the  composi- 
tion of  the  tubers,  the  effect  produced  wiU  be  more  or  less 
striking. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  ash  of  the  potato  is  rich  in 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING,  361 

potash  and  contains  also  considerable  phosphoric  acid,  but 
only  a  little  lime  and  soda ;  this  must  be  borne  in  mind 
when  they  are  used  for  feeding  milk  cows  or  young  and 
growing  animals. 

Artichokes. — These  may  be  mentioned  as  being  the 
only  other  tubers  which  are  of  practical  importance  as 
fodder,  and  even  they  are  seldom  raised  on  the  large  scale. 

The  tubers  of  this  plant  are  more  watery  than  the  potato, 
but  somewhat  richer  in  protein,  so  that  the  nutritive  ratio 
is  on  the  average  about  1  :  8.  The  stalks  may  also  be  used 
as  fodder  for  sheep,  the  animals  being  allowed  to  select  for 
themselves  the  leaves  and  tender  plants. 

KooTS. — Composition. — Potatoes  and  artichokes  are  tu- 
bers, though  often  included  under  the  term  roots  or  root 
crops. 

The  feeding-stuffs  which  we  are  about  to  consider,  how- 
ever, are  true  roots,  and  the  difference  shows  itself  even  in 
their  chemical  composition,  while  among  themselves  they 
are  so  similar  that  a  separate  consideration  of  each  kind  is 
hardly  necessary. 

They  contain  much  more  water  than  the  tubers,  and  are 
characterized  by  the  fact  that  while  in  the  former  the 
nitrogen-free  extract  consists  almost  wholly  of  starch,  in 
the  roots  it  consists  of  sugar  and  bodies  of  the  pectin 
group,  with  no  starch  except  in  a  few  cases,  e.  g.,  in  the 
carrot. 

That  pectin  is  easily  digestible,  at  least  by  ruminants, 
was  found  in  experiments  made  long  ago,  by  Grouven,  at 
Salzmiinde,  on  oxen,  and  this  result  has  been  confirmed  by 
the  fact  that  in  numerous  experiments  since  made  on  sheep, 
in  Hohenheim,  the  nitrogen-free  extract  of  roots  was  very 
completely  digested,  often  up  to  98  per  cent.,  even  when 
large  quantities  of  roots  were  fed.     The  nutritive  effect, 


362  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

therefore,  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  of  roots  maj  be  as- 
sumed to  be  similar  to  that  of  starch. 

Variations  in  Composition. — It  is  observed  in  all  roots 
that,  other  things  being  equal,  the  water  content  increases 
with  the  size  of  the  root,  and  consequently  the  quantity  of 
dry  matter  decreases. 

The  richer  the  soil  and  the  more  heavily  it  has  been 
manured,  especially  with  yard  manure,  the  greater  is  usu- 
ally the  percentage  of  protein  in  the  dry  matter  of  the 
roots.  The  different  kinds  of  roots,  how^ever,  show  differ- 
ences in  this  respect.  Sugar  beets  are  the  poorest  in  pro- 
tein and  contain  the  most  dry  matter,  at  least  w^hen  they 
develop  according  to  the  wish  of  the  sugar  manufacturer. 
Large  sugar  beets,  weighing  two  pounds  and  over,  such  as 
are  produced  by  heavy  green  manuring  and  too  wide  set- 
ing,  have  a  composition  more  resembling  that  of  ordinary 
mangolds. 

Feeding  Value. — The  foregoing  consideration  of  the 
chemical  composition  of  tubers  and  roots  points  out  un- 
mistakably their  true  value  as  fodder.  Aside  from  their 
succulence  and  palatability,  and  any  specific  dietetic  action 
which  they  may  exert,  their  value  lies  in  their  non-nitro- 
genous ingredients.  They  contain  but  little  nitrogenous 
matter  and  only  a  portion  of  this  is  true  protein,  so  that 
unless  very  large  amounts  of  them  are  fed  these  constitu- 
ents are  of  little  account.  The  carbhydrates  and  pectin 
substances  Avhich  they  contain,  on  the  other  hand,  are  pres- 
ent in  large  quantities,  are  easily  digestible,  and  furnish  a 
ready  source  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients. 

These  feeding-stuffs  are  generally  assumed  to  be  wholly 
digestible.  It  is  not  likely  that  this  is  strictly  true,  but 
their  digestibility  is  so  great  that  no  serious  practical  error 
is  involved  in  the  assumption  of  complete  digestibility. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  363 

Sugar  Beet  Pulp. — Where  the  manufacture  of  beet 
sugar  is  carried  on,  the  residue  from  the  extraction  of  the 
juice  is  largely  used  as  fodder. 

The  change  of  composition  which  takes  place  in  the 
material  consists  largely  in  a  removal  of  non-nitrogenous 
constituents ;  but  the  extent  of  the  alteration,  as  well  as 
the  composition  and  properties  of  the  residue,  vary  con- 
siderably according  to  the  method  of  manufacture. 

In  the  older  methods,  still  quite  commonly  used,  the 
juice  is  obtained  either  by  pressing  the  roots  or  by  means 
of  a  centrifugal  machine.  In  both  cases  more  or  less  of 
the  nitrogenous  matter  of  the  beets  passes  into  the  juice. 
Sugar  beets  have,  on  the  average,  a  nutritive  ratio  of 
1  :  lY  ;  in  the  residues  thus  obtained  it  is  reduced  to  1 :  10 
-12,  while  the  pressed  residue  has  about  30  per  cent.,  and 
that  from  the  centrifugal  machines  about  IS  per  cent,  of 
dry  matter. 

The  newer  method  consists  in  treating  the  thinly  sliced 
roots  with  warm  water  and  allowing  the  sugar  to  diffuse 
out.  In  this  method  but  little  protein  passes  into  the 
juice,  and  the  residue  has  a  much  narrower  nutritive  ratio 
than  that  from  either  of  the  former  methods,  viz.,  1 :  5.5-7, 
rendering  it,  of  course,  all  the  more  valuable  for  feeding. 
It  has,  however,  the  disadvantage  of  being  very  watery, 
containing  only  about  5.5  per  cent  of  dry  matter ;  by 
moderate  pressure  the  amount  may  be  increased  to  about 
7  per  cent.,  and  by  heavier  but  more  costly  pressure  to 
9.5  to  1-1.5  per  cent. 

A  process  strongly  recommended  for  utilizing  these 
residues  is  to  remove  as  much  of  their  water  by  pressing  as 
practicable  and  then  to  treat  them  by  ensilage. 

In  the  fermentation  still  more  water  is  removed,  but, 
according  to  experiments  in  Weende,  only  a  slight  loss  of 


364  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

valuable  nutrients  takes  place,  and  this  is  less  when  the 
residue  is  previously  pressed  than  when  it  is  submitted  to 
fermentation  in  its  fresh  state.  In  these  experiments  the 
percentage  of  dry  matter  increased,  in  the  unpressed  resi- 
due, from  5.4  to  8  per  cent.,  and  in  the  moderately  pressed 
residue  from  6.8  to  13.7  per  cent.  A  further  advantage  in 
pressing  previous  to  fermenting  is  that  it  seems  to  make 
the  fodder  keep  better  and  to  protect  it  from  decay. 

The  residue  of  the  diffusion  process,  when  fermented,  is 
an  excellent  and  palatable  fodder  for  all  farm  animals, 
when  it  is  fed  as  part  of  a  properly  compounded  ration, 
while  it  does  not  seem  to  be  so  satisfactory  when  fed 
fresh. 


PART  III. 
THE    FEEDING    OF    FARM    ANIMALS, 


CHAPTER  I. 

FEEDING  STANDARDS. 

Components  of  Body. — In  the  first  chapter  of  Part  I, 
we  learned  that  the  anunal  body,  in  spite  of  the  great 
number  of  different  substances  which  are  found  in  it,  may 
be  regarded,  for  purposes  of  feeding,  as  composed  of  four 
substances,  viz.,  water,  protein,  fat,  and  ash.  All  the 
other  compounds  which  it  contains  are  found  in  such  small 
quantities  as  to  be  of  no  significance  when  the  general 
make-up  of  the  body  is  under  consideration. 

In  life  the  body  suffers  a  continual  loss  of  these  sub- 
stances, and  must  receive  a  constant  supply  of  materials 
from  without  to  replace  them.  The  loss  of  water  is  readily 
supplied,  and  any  fodder  which  is  adequate  in  other 
respects  will  in  most  cases  contain  a  sufficient  amount  of 
the  ash  ingredients ;  so  that  in  feeding,  our  attention  is 
chiefiy  devoted  to  supplying  materials  for  replacing  the 
losses  of  protein  and  fat  to  which  the  body  is  subject. 

The  Nutrients. — The  replacement  of  these  continual 


366  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

losses  from  the  body,  as  well  as  the  supply  of  material  for 
new  gi'owth,  is  accomplished  by  means  of  the  food. 

Plainly,  however,  it  is  not  the  food  as  a  whole,  but 
those  ingredients  of  it  which  ^lvq  digested  which  can  serve 
this  purpose.  Neglecting,  as  before,  water  and  ash,  the 
substances  digested  and  resorbed  from  the  food  are  essen- 
tially three  in  number,  viz.,  protein,  fat,  and  carbhydrates ; 
and  it  is  with  these  three  kinds  of  matter  that  the  amount 
of  protein  and  fat  in  the  body  is  maintained  or  increased. 
The  digested  protein  of  the  food  is  the  sole  source  of  the 
protein  of  the  body,  while,  as  w^e  have  seen,  the  investi- 
gations thus  far  made  lead  us  to  the  conclusion  that  all 
three  groups  of  nutrients  probably  contribute  to  the  forma- 
tion of  fat. 

Feeding  Standards. — In  the  last  three  chapters  of  Part 
I.  we  took  up  the  general  laws  regulating  the  production 
of  flesh,  fat,  and  work  in  the  body.  It  became  evident 
from  the  considerations  there  presented  (compare  page  196) 
that  an  essentially  different  proportion  of  nitrogenous  and 
non-nitrogenous  nutrients  is  required  in  the  fodder  accord- 
ing to  the  objec/;  of  the  feeding,  a  conclusion  which  is 
plainly  in  harmony  with  practical  experience. 

The  chief  object  of  investigation  in  the  field  of  cattle- 
feeding  was  there  stated  to  be  the  determination  of  the 
quantity  and  proportions  of  the  several  nutrients  required 
in  the  fodder  of  animals  kept  for  various  purposes.  The 
results  of  such  investigation  are  concisely  expressed  in 
what  are  called  "  Feeding  Standards,''  which  are  simply 
statements  of  the  amounts  of  digestible  protein,  carbhy- 
drates, and  fat,  wliich  experience  has  shown  to  be  in  gen- 
eral best  adapted  to  the  purpose  in  view.  For  example, 
the  feeding  standard  for  milk  cows  given  by  Wolff  is  as 
f  oUows : 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  367 


Feeding  Standard  for  Milk  Cows,  per  Day  and  1,000  Pounds 
Live  Weight. 

Digestible  protein 2.5  pounds. 

*'         fat 0.4       " 

"         carbhydrates 12.5       " 

Nutritive  ratio 1:5.4 

Total  dry  matter 24  pounds. 

This  means  that  any  mixture  of  suitable  feeding-stuffs 
from  which  a  cow  can  digest  2.5  pounds  of  protein  and  13 
pounds  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  per  day  will  form  a 
proper  ration  and  yield  a  good  flow  of  milk. 

Advantage  of  Feeding  Standards. — The  advantage 
of  a  feeding  standard  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  presents  the 
results  obtained  by  careful  experiment  and  observation  in 
a  concise  form,  and  one  admitting  of  practical  application. 

Thus  the  feeding  standard  for  milk  cows  given  above  is 
deduced  by  Wolff  from  the  results  of  a  large  number  of 
experiments  made  at  different  times  and  by  different 
observers  In  these  experiments  various  feeding-stuffs 
were  used.  Now  it  is  plain  that  a  simple  statement 
of  the  kind  and  quantity  of  fodder  used  in  one  or  all 
of  these  experiments  would  be  of  use  to  the  feeder 
only  if  he  had  at  his  disposal  the  same  kind  and  quality 
of  fodder.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  must  use  other  feed- 
ing-stuffs, he  can  derive  no  benefit  from  these  experiments 
unless  he  has  some  means  of  comparing  the  nutritive  value 
of  his  feeding-stuffs  with  that  of  those  there  used. 

This  he  can  do  by  estimating  the  amounts  of  the  several 
nutrients  which  his  feeding-stuffs  contain  in  a  digestible 
form,  since  it  is  evident  that  their  nutritive  value  lies 
simply  in  the  amount  of  protein,  fat,  and  carbhydrates 
which  the  cows  can  extract  from  them.  Moreover,  when 
he  kngws  the  quantity  of  digestible  nutrients  which  his 


368  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

feeding-stuffs  contain,  a  feeding  standard  like  that  already 
given  will  enable  him  to  compound  a  ration,  from  the  ma- 
terials at  his  disposal,  which  shall  supply  his  cows  with  the 
same  amounts  of  digestible  matters  as  were  employed,  on 
the  average,  in  the  experiments  from  which  that  standard 
was  deduced.  When  his  cows  are  thus  fed,  though  they 
may  not  consume  the  same  kind  or  weight  of  fodder  as 
was  used  in  the  experiments  which  he  has  taken  for  a 
model,  they  will  resorb  into  their  systems  the  same  amounts 
of  protein,  fat,  and  carbhydrates,  and  will  therefore  be 
equally  well  nourished. 

The  method  of  calculating  rations  in  accordance  with 
these  principles  will  form  the  topic  of  a  subsequent  chap- 
ter ;  we  are  concerned  here  only  with  the  nature  and 
utility  of  feeding  standards. 

The  convenience  of  these  standards  as  a  means  of  ex- 
pressing the  results  of  experience  and  as  a  guide  in  the 
compounding  of  rations  is  obvious.  In  the  succeeding 
chapters  we  shall  occupy  ourselves  with  a  consideration  of  the 
feeding  standards  for  the  various  purposes  for  which  stock 
is  kept,  endeavoring  to  indicate  the  degree  of  confidence 
which  is  to  be  placed  in  them  and  the  principles  in  accord- 
ance with  which  they  may  be  modified  to  suit  individual 
circumstances. 

In  addition  to  the  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  re- 
quired, feeding  standards  usually  prescribe  approximately 
the  amount  of  total  dry  matter  in  the  ration.  This, 
in  connection  with  the  amount  of  digestible  matters, 
informs  us  in  regard  to  the  volume  of  the  ration,  and 
whether  it  contains  larger  or  smaller  quantities  of  coarse 
or  of  concentrated  feeding-stuffs.  If  the  amount  of 
total  dry  matter  is  much  in  excess  of  the  sum  of  the 
digestible  matters,  it  is  obvious  that  a  considerable  portion 


MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  360 

of  the  ration  must  be  made  up  of  bulky  fodder,  containing 
much  indigestible  matter  and  serving  to  make  up  the  neces- 
sary volume,  while  if  this  excess  is  small,  a  larger  portion 
of  the  ration  must  consist  of  easily  digestible  feeding-stuffs. 

In  the  feeding  standard  given  above  as  an  illustration,  a 
certain  quantity  of  digestible  fat  is  called  for.  It  is  at  pres- 
ent impossible  to  state  with  any  certainty  the  most  suitable 
quantity  of  this  substance,  since  so  few  experiments  have 
been  made  on  the  subject,  and  even  these  are  by  no  means 
accordant.  We  know  that  the  fat  of  the  food  appears  to  be 
more  easily  stored  up  in  the  body  than  that  coming  from  the 
splitting  up  of  the  albuminoids  (page  191),  and  that  fat 
is  a  more  concentrated  heat-producer  than  the  carbhy- 
drates,  while,  in  its  relations  to  the  gain  and  consump- 
tion of  flesh,  it  can  be  replaced  by  the  latter.  It  may, 
therefore,  be  assumed  that  the  fat  of  the  fodder  plays  a 
direct  and  important  part  in  the  production  of  milk,  in 
fattening,  and  in  the  feeding  of  working  animals,  especially 
horses,  and  that  accordingly  where  a  rapid  production  is 
desired,  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  ration  is  of  some  mo- 
ment. We  shall,  therefore,  include  the  digestible  fat  as 
such  in  the  feeding  standards,  but  rather  as  an  indication 
of  its  probable  importance  than  as  a  statement  of  the  quan- 
tity of  it  which  must  be  contained  in  the  ration. 

Limitations  of  Feeding  Standards. — Feeding  stand- 
ards being  simply  the  concise  expression  of  the  results  of 
experiment  and  observation,  it  is  plain  that  their  value 
must  depend  on  the  extent  and  accuracy  of  the  observa- 
tions on  which  they  are  based.  Some  of  those  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  following  chapters  are  the  results  of  many 
careful  experiments,  and  are  worthy  of  much  confidence. 
Others,  again,  are  based  on  but  few  observations,  and  are 
confessedly  only  tentative. 
16* 


370  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Furthermore,  it  is  plain  that  a  single  feeding  standard 
cannot  possibly  take  account  of  all  the  varying  conditions 
that  arise  in  practice.  For  the  maintenance  of  full-grown 
animals  it  is  possible  to  give  tolerably  exact  feeding  stand- 
ards, but  for  purposes  of  production  it  is  obvious  that  an 
important  factor  in  determining  the  character  of  the  feed- 
ing is  the  amount  of  production  which  is  desired,  this  again 
being  determined  by  financial  considerations.  As  a  general 
rule,  a  rapid  and  abundant  production  is  relatively  more  ex- 
pensive than  a  smaller  and  slower  one,  and  is  profitable  only 
when  the  price  of  the  products  is  correspondingly  high. 

Moreover,  different  breeds,  and  even  different  animals  of 
the  same  breed,  show  differences  in  their  capacity  for  pro- 
duction and  in  the  return  which  they  yield  for  a  given 
expenditure  of  fodder. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  office  of  a  feeding  standard 
is  to  show  what  amount  and  quality  of  food  is  in  general 
best  adapted  to  the  end  in  view,  while  the  conditions  of 
the  individual  case  must  determine  how  far  and  in  what 
way  it  is  to  be  modified.  An  unintelligent  use  of  feeding 
standards  is  quite  as  likely  to  result  in  failure  as  in  suc- 
cess ;  but  when  combined  with  practical  judgment  and 
observation,  and  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  animal  nutri- 
tion, they  are  capable  of  rendering  important  aid  to  the 
feeder. 

In  the  following  chapters  we  shall  take  up  the  chief  ob- 
jects of  feeding  and  consider  briefly  the  application  to 
them  of  the  general  laws  of  animal  nutrition  which  formed 
the  subject-matter  of  Part  L,  indicating  under  each  head 
the  quantities  of  the  several  nutrients  {i.  e.^  the  feeding 
standard)  which  the  experience  thus  far  had  shows  to  be, 
on  the  whole,  adapted  to  produce  the  best  results  at  the 
least  expense  of  fodder. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  371 

Amides. — Attention  has  already  been  several  times 
called  to  the  fact  of  the  existence  of  considerable  amounts 
of  amides  in  many  fodders.  Many  of  the  experiments  from 
which  our  feeding  standards  are  derived  have,  doubtless, 
been  made  with  such  fodders,  and  it  becomes  of  interest  to 
inquire  how  their  results  are  affected  by  this  fact. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  these  feeding  standards  are 
not  deduced  from  any  theoretical  considerations,  but  are 
simply  the  combined  results  of  more  or  less  numerous 
carefully  conducted  feeding-trials.  In  these  trials,  feeding- 
stuffs  have  been  used  which  have  subsequently  been  shown 
to  contain  amides,  and  their  results,  when  allowance  is 
made  for  this  fact,  might  be  expressed  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows : 

So  much  digestible  albuminoids  and  amides,  along  with 
such  and  such  amounts  of  digestible  carbhydrates  and  fat, 
proved  a  suitable  ration  for  the  purpose  intended. 

]^ow  in  compounding  a  ration  in  accordance  with  a 
feeding  standard  like  the  above,  the  farmer  would  natu- 
rally use,  to  a  considerable  extent,  feeding-stuffs  similar  to 
those  used  in  the  original  experiments,  and  in  all  probabil- 
ity the  proportions  of  albuminoids  and  amides  in  the  two 
rations  would  not  vary  very  greatly. 

Moreover,  it  would  appear  from  our  present  knowledge 
that  any  difference  which  might  exist  would  only  affect 
the  value  of  a  ration  as  a  fat  producer,  while  the  two 
rations  would  be  on  an  equality  as  regards  the  formation 
of  flesh. 

If  we  add  to  this  the  fact  that  the  feeding  standards 
themselves  are  but  approximations,  and  are  not  to  be 
blindly  foUowed,  but  intelligently  modified  to  suit  varying 
circumstances,  we  shall  see  that,  in  spite  of  some  ambigu- 
ity, a  feeding  standard  may  yet  be  a  valuable  aid  in  apply- 


372  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

ing  the  experience  gained  by  other  experimenters  to  our 
o^\Ti  particular  case. 

Still  further,  if  we  know,  as  we  easily  may,  the  propor- 
tions of  albuminoids  and  of  amide-like  bodies  in  the  feed- 
ing-stuffs which  we  use,  we  have,  even  with  our  present 
limited  knowledge  of  the  subject,  the  basis  for  forming  a 
tolerably  intelligent  judgment  as  to  whether  our  ration  is 
deficient  in  true  albuminoids  or  not. 

It  is,  of  course,  desirable  that  feeding  standards  should 
distinguish  between  albuminoids  and  amides,  and  doubt- 
less this  will  be  done  to  a  large  extent  in  future  investiga- 
tions. Meanwhile,  the  considerations  here  presented  show 
that  those  standards  which  we  possess  at  present  are  far 
from  having  lost  their  practical  value  when  intelligently 
used. 

Subjects  not  Considered. — Regarding,  as  we  do,  the 
determination  of  the  proper  feeding  standards  for  the  vari- 
ous purposes  of  feeding  as  the  chief  object  of  all  work  in 
this  department  of  agricultural  science,  we  must  confine 
ourselves  in  this  part  of  the  present  work  chiefly  to  the 
consideration  of  these  standards.  It  does  not  come  within 
the  scope  of  this  work  to  consider  such  questions  as  the 
palatability  of  the  various  feeding-stuffs,  the  most  suitable 
kinds  of  fodder  for  different  animals,  or  any  "  specific  "  or 
dietetic  action  of  particular  fodders  ,on  the  organism. 
These  are,  in  part,  purely  practical  questions,  and  in  part 
questions  to  which  science  can  as  yet  return  no  definite 
answer.  Consequently,  though  they  are  often  of  great 
importance,  they  do  not  properly  find  a  place  in  a  work 
which  treats  of  the  application  of  science  to  feeding. 

Furthermore,  it  is  not  our  purpose  to  consider  the 
necessary  management  and  care  of  stock,  the  arrangement 
of  staUs,  stables,   and  yards,  or  the  various  methods  of 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  373 

preparing  the  fodder.  On  the  contrary,  we  assume  that 
all  that  is  necessary  in  these  respects  is  carefully  observed ; 
only  when  this  is  the  case  can  the  best  attainable  utiliza- 
tion of  the  fodder  used  be  expected.  In  this  we  include 
those  methods  of  preparing  the  fodder  which,  wdiile  they 
do  not  increase  its  digestibility,  render  it  more  palatable, 
and  incline  the  animals  to  eat  more  of  it. 


CHAPTER  II. 

FEEDING  FOR  MAINTENANCE. 
§1.  Oxen. 

The  Weende  Experiments. — In  order  to  obtain  the 
necessary  basis  for  a  rational  feeding  of  domestic  animals, 
especially  of  the  ruminants,  it  is  important  to  determine 
the  minimum  amount  of  nutritive  matters  which  is  neces- 
sary for  full-grown  animals  in  complete  rest,  in  order  to 
just  keep  them  in  average  condition.  Oxen  are  especially 
adapted  for  such  experiments,  since  in  these  animals  the 
production  of  hair  or  other  portions  of  the  body,  or  of  secre- 
tions like  milk,  does  not  demand  any  considerable  quantity 
of  nutrients,  and  therefore  the  demands  of  the  vital  pro- 
cesses on  the  latter  can  be  determined  with  sufficient  accu- 
racy. 

The  earlier  experiments  of  Henneberg  &  Stohmann,* 
at  Weende,  gave  valuable  results  on  this  point.  They 
were  made  on  full-grown  oxen ;  the  digestibility  of  the 
fodder  was  ascertained  directly,  and  the  protein  consump- 
tion and  the  gain  or  loss  of  flesh  were  also  determined. 
In  the  absence  of  a  respiration  apparatus,  the  gain  or  loss 
of  fat  could  only  be  estimated. 

It  was  observed  that  the  whole  outward  appearance  of  the 
animals  remained  unchanged  for  a  considerable  time,  and 

*  "  Beitrage  zur  Begriindung  einer  rationellen  Fiitterung  der  Wieder- 
kauer,"  Heft  1. 


MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


375 


that  their  weight  suffered  no  essential  increase  or  decrease, 
when  they  received,  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight,  one  of  the 
following  rations  per  day : 

1.  19.5  lbs.  clover  hay. 

2.  3.7  "  "       ''     13.0  lbs.  oat  straw,  and  0.6  lb.  rape  cake. 

3.  2.6  "  "       "     14.2  "          "            "    0.5  " 

4.  3.8  "  "        "     13.3   "    rye  straw,  and  0.6  "            " 
5.25.6  "  mangolds,  12.6  "    oat  straw,  and  1.0  "           *' 

These  rations  were  found  to  have  yielded  the  following 
quantities  of  digestible  nutrients  per  day  : 


Temperature 

of  stall. 

Deg.  Fahr. 

Protein, 
Lbs. 

Fat. 
Lbs. 

Carbhydrates. 

1 

50.7 
61.7 

68.7 
68.7 
61.7 
62.3 

0.84 

0.50 
0.41 
0.49 
0.56 

0.57 

0.04 
0.04 
0.25 
0.46 
0.60 

0.28 

7.61 

3 

7  12 

3 

4 

7.52 
7  03 

5 

6  44 

Average 

7.14 

It  was  furthermore  observed  that  there  was  rather  a 
slight  gain  than  any  loss  of  flesh,  showing  that  the  fodder 
was  certainly  sufficient  to  maintain  the  animals  in  their 
original  condition.  Li  only  one  of  the  experiments  was  a 
small  loss  of  flesh  observed,  and  this  took  place  in  Experi- 
ment 1,  in  which  the  greatest  quantity  of  nutrients  was 
digested.  It  is  probable  that  this  is  to  be  explained  by  the 
lower  temperature  of  the  stall  in  this  case,  since  a  lower 
temperature  causes  an  increased  production  of  heat  in  the 
body  at  the  expense  of  either  the  food  materials  or  the 


376  MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

"body  itself.  It  may  be  mentioned,  also,  that  tlie  above 
rations  contained,  on  the  average,  about  0.05  lb.  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  0.1  lb.  of  lime,  and  0.2  lb.  of  alkalies,  quanti- 
ties which  must  be  abundantly  sufficient  to  supply  the 
wants  of  full-grown  oxen  at  rest.  The  daily  amount  of 
water  was,  per  1,0U0  lbs.  live  weight,  52  to  6-i  lbs.,  averag- 
ing 55  lbs. 

Ko  certain  evidence  could  be  obtained  in  the  above  ex- 
periments as  to  whether  the  fat  of  the  body,  like  the  flesh, 
remained  unaltered  in  amount ;  this  could  only  be  assumed 
as  probable  from  the  general  appearance  of  the  animals. 

The  average  nutritive  ratio  in  these  experiments  was 
1  :  13.  Later  experiments  in  Weende  showed  very  de- 
cisively that  a  much  narrow  nutritive  ratio  is  undesirable 
in  the  maintenance  feeding  of  oxen.  In  the  average  of  thir- 
teen experiments  the  animals  digested,  per  day  and  1,000 
lbs.  live  weight,  1.18  lbs.  of  protein  and  6.60  lbs.  of  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients,  the  nutritive  ratio  being  1  :  5.6. 
The  result  was  an  average  gain  of  0.29  lb.  of  protein  per 
day  (compare  pp.  148-150),  but  a  very  decided  loss  of 
weight,  caused  probably  by  a  loss  of  fat. 

In  two  experiments,  the  animals  digested  only  0.4  and 
0.6  lb.  of  protein  per  day  and  1,000  lbs.  live  weight,  yet 
these  small  quantities  sufficed  to  prevent  any  loss  of  flesh, 
thus  confirming  the  results  of  the  earlier  experiments. 

The  Feeding  Standard. — As  the  direct  result  of  the 
Weende  experiments  we  find  that  a  ration  which  supplies 
about  0.6  lb.  of  digestible  protein  and  about  7.5  lbs.  of 
digestible  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  per  day  will  suffice  to 
maintain  a  thousand  pound  ox  without  growth  or  loss  of 
weight. 

In  all  these  experiments,  however,  the  temperature  of 
the  staU  was  considerably  higher  than  it  is  usually  practi- 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDmG.  377 

cable  to  keep  it  in  winter,  and  as  a  consequence  the  demands 
of  the  animals  for  food,  particularly  for  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients,  must  have  been  correspondingly  less  (compare 
pp.  231-233).  In  view  of  this  fact  it  is  probable  that  the 
above  numbers  should  be  increased  somewhat  in  order  to 
be  sure  of  satisfying  the  minimum  demands  of  the  animals 
under  average  conditions.  Wolff  recommends  the  follow- 
ing 

Feeding  Standard. 

Digestible  protein 0  7  pounds. 

*'         carbhydrates  and  fat 8.4  " 

Nutritive  ratio 1 ;  12 

Total  dry  matter,  about 17.5  pounds. 

These  quantities  of  digestible  matters  are  amply  suffici- 
ent in  ordinary  cases.  It  is,  indeed,  probable  that  the 
amount  of  protein  might  often  be  decreased  slightly  with- 
out occasioning  a  loss  of  flesh,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
exposure  to  great  cold  might  cause  a  demand  for  more 
carbhydrates. 

The  number  for  total  dry  matter  indicates  that  the  fodder 
should  be  quite  bulky,  and  may  appropriately  and  profit- 
ably consist  of  straw,  with  the  addition  of  some  hay  or  of 
small  quantities  of  nitrogenous  bye-fodder,  either  with  or 
without  roots.  The  quantity,  of  digestible  ^(2?^  is  of  no 
great  importance  in  the  simple  maintenance  of  oxen. 

The  quantities  of  the  above  feeding  standard  are  per 
day  for  a  thousand  pound  animal.  Lighter  animals  would 
require  less  food  of  the  same  quality,  and  heavier 
ones  more.  The  variation  is  not  quite  in  proportion  to 
the  weight,  however.  Small  animals  require  more  food 
than  large  ones  in  proportion  to  their  weight,  since  they  ex- 
pose relatively  more  surface  to  radiation  and  consequently 


378  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

lose  heat  more  rapidly,  just  as  several  small  hot  bodies  will 
cool  faster  than  one  large  one  of  equal  weight. 

Convenience  of  the  Feeding  Standard. — Any  ration 
which  contains  the  amounts  of  total  dry  matter  and  of  di- 
gestible nutrients  called  for  by  the  standard  will  serve  the 
desired  purpose. 

The  convenience  of  possessing  such  a  standard  is  obvi- 
ous. On  page  375  we  have  given  five  rations,  any  one  of 
which  was  found  to  keep  the  animals  in  good  condition ; 
but  these  alone  would  be  of  little  benefit  to  a  farmer  who 
did  not  have  at  his  disposal  exactly  the  fodders  there  called 
for.  If  he  chanced  to  wish  to  use  hay,  or  wheat  straw,  or 
stover,  or  not  to  have  rape  cake,  he  would  be  left  entirely 
in  the  dark  as  to  how  much  of  these  to  use,  or  how  to  com- 
bine them,  or  what  to  substitute  for  them.  But  with  the 
feeding  standard  he  has  simply  to  calculate,  by  the  aid  of 
a  table  such  as  is  given  in  the  Appendix,  what  quantities 
of  the  materials  at  his  disposal  will  give  the  amounts  of 
the  various  constituents  and  the  bulk  which  the  standard 
calls  for. 

The  aid  which  such  a  method  of  calculation  gives  in 
comparing  the  experience  of  different  observers  is  not 
easily  overestimated ;  it  reduces  the  heterogenous  observa- 
tions to  a  comparable  form,  and  to  one  which  shows  ex- 
actly in  what  direction  the  ration  is  defective,  if  it  is  so  at 
all,  while  a  simple  statement  of  the  kinds  and  quantities 
of  fodder  used  is  of  only  local  value.  This  will  appear 
more  strikingly  when  we  come  to  consider  productive 
feeding. 

It  may  be  added  in  regard  to  the  above  standard  that  it 
agrees  well  wdth  the  practical  experience  of  German  agri- 
culturists. 

Exclusive  Meal  Feeding. — All  the  experiments  hither- 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  379 

to  made  on  the  maintenance  feeding  of  cattle  have  been 
with  various  forms  of  coarse  fodder.  The  plan  of  winter- 
ing stock  on  corn  meal  exclusively,  which  is  adopted  by 
Mr.  L.  W.  Miller,  has  already  been  alluded  to,  and  pres- 
ents such  a  strong  contrast  to  the  ordinary  system  as  to 
merit  some  consideration. 

Mr.  Miller's  experiments  have  been  made  on  dry  cows, 
and  he  states,"^  as  the  result  of  several  seasons'  experience, 
that  three  quarts  of  good  Jine  corn  meal  per  day,  fed  dry 
and  without  other  food,  are  abundantly  sufficient  to  supply 
the  wants  of  a  900  pomid  animal. 

It  is  of  interest  to  compare  this  ration  with  the  feeding 
standard  deduced  above.  Assuming  three  quarts  of  meal 
to  weigh  4.2  lbs.,  and  that  the  corn  meal  has  the  same 
composition  as  the  average  of  American  maize,  viz.  : 

Water 10.47  per  cent. 

Ash 1.56       " 

Protein 10.96       *' 

Crude  fibre 1.73       " 

Nitrogen-free  extract 69.69       " 

Fat 5.59       '' 

and  assuming  also  the  highest  digestion  coefficients  yet 
observed  for  maize,  viz. : 

Protein 85 

Crude  fibre 57 

Nitrogen-free  extract 96 

Fat 79 

we  obtain  the  following  comparison,  calculated  for  a  thou- 
sand pound  animal : 

*  In  his  pamphlet  entitled  "Meal  Feeding  and  Animal  Digestion." 


380 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Dry  matter , 

Digestible  protein 

"         carbhydrates 
"  fat 


Standard. 
Lbs. 


4.7  lbs.  corn  meal. 
Lbs. 


4.21 
0.44 
3.20 
0.21 


A  striking  contrast  is  at  once  manifest.  The  protein  of 
tlie  corn  meal  ration,  though  falling  considerably  below 
the  amount  called  for  by  the  standard,  is  not  essentially 
less  than  in  some  of  the  Weende  experiments  (p.  375),  but 
the  quantity  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  is  very  much 
smaller  in  the  meal  ration,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
total  dry  matter. 

Mr.  Miller  and  others  who  have  practised  his  system, 
state  that  the  animals  do  not  appear  to  lose  flesh  on  it,  and 
that  animals  wintered  in  this  way  take  on  flesh  when 
turned  out  to  grass  in  the  spring  more  readily  than  after  hay- 
feeding.  Though  no  weighings  are  given  to  substantiate 
these  statements,  it  appears  unlikely  that  any  great  deterio- 
ration in  the  condition  of  the  animals  would  have  escaped 
notice.  Apparently,  we  must  admit  that  a  ration  of  three 
quarts  of  corn  meal  is  at  least  nearly  sufficient  for  main- 
tenance. 

In  accounting  for  the  sufficiency  of  a  ration  falling  so 
much  below  what  other  experiments  have  shown  to  be 
necessary,  several  facts  must  be  taken  account  of. 

In  the  first  place,  Mr.  Miller  s  rules  direct  that  the 
stables  be  kept  "warm  and  comfortable."  As  already 
noted,  the  quantity  of  digestible  protein  calculated  to  be 
present  in  the  corn-meal  is  about  the  same  as  that  digested 
in  the  AYeende  experiments,  which  were  also  made  in  warm 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  381 

stables.  Doubtless  some  saving  of  protein  and  a  consider- 
able economy  of  carbliydrates  and  fat  can  be  effected  in 
this  way. 

In  tlie  second  place,  tlie  digestible  matters  of  tlie  corn- 
meal  are  accompanied  by  far  less  indigestible  matter,  and 
consequently  require  less  internal  work  in  tlieir  digestion, 
as  explained  on  page  228.  Though  we  have  no  means  of 
accurately  computing  the  saving  thus  affected,  it  is  doubt- 
less considerable. 

Still  a  third  point,  to  which  attention  has  recently  been 
drawn  by  Salmon,''^  is  the  fact  stated  by  Mr.  Miller,  that 
cows  fed  exclusively  on  meal  drink  but  little  water,  averag- 
ing about  five  quarts  per  day  and  head.  Five  quarts  equal 
about  lOj  pounds,  while  the  amount  consumed  on  an  ordi- 
nary ration  of  coarse  fodder  (estimating,  according  to 
Wolff,  four  pounds  of  water  to  one  of  dry  matter)  would 
be  not  far  fi'om  YO  pounds.  Allowing  for  the  half-pound 
of  water  in  the  corn  meal,  this  shows  a  difference  of  59 
pounds  per  day. 

I^ow  we  have  already  learned  that  an  increased  con- 
sumption of  water  involves  an  increase  in  the  amount  of 
matter  oxidized  in  the  body,  particularly  in  that  of  the 
non-nitrogenous  matters.  This  increase  is  probably  due 
largely,  if  not  wholly,  to  the  demand  thus  made  on  the 
body  for  heat  to  warm  the  water  to  the  temperature  of  the 
body  and  to  evaporate  part  of  it.  (Compare  pp.  234- 
237.) 

If  we  assume  the  extra  59  pounds  of  water  consumed 
when  coarse  fodder  is  used  to  have  a  temperature  of 
32°  F.  when  drunk,  then  warming  this  water  to  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body  (100°  F.)  would  require  1,016,971 

*  Country  Gentleman,  July  11,  1878, 


382  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING. 

units  of  heat,  an  amount  producible  bj  the  combustion  of 
0.57  pounds  of  material  of  the  composition  of  starch. 

Furthermore,  a  portion  of  this  water  is  converted  into 
vapor,  thus  causing  a  still  greater  demand  for  heat.  In 
Henneberg's  experiments  on  sheep  (page  235),  about  one- 
half  the  water  drunk  was  excreted  as  vapor.  If  we  as- 
sume that  this  proportion  is  applicable  to  cattle,  and  that 
of  the  59  pounds  of  water  about  30  pounds  are  converted 
into  vapor,  it  is  easy  to  calculate  from  the  data  on  page 
234  that  the  production  of  sufficient  heat  for  this  purpose 
would  require  the  combustion  of  4.44  pounds  of  organic 
matter  of  the  composition  of  starch. 

If,  now,  we  add  to  the  digestible  non-nitrogenous  mat- 
ters of  the  meal  ration  the  amounts  estimated  to  be  saved 
by  the  less  consumption  of  water,  we  obtain  the  following 
result : 

Present  in  the  corn  meal 3.41  pounds. 

Warming  59  lbs.  of  water  to  temperature  of  body  0.57       " 
Evaporating  30  lbs.  of  water 4.44       " 

Total 8.43       " 

Feeding  standard 8.40       *' 

Adding  to  this  the  fact  that  an  increased  consumption  of 
water  augments  the  protein  consumption  in  the  body,  we 
have  a  plausible  explanation  of  the  sufficiency  of  the  ap- 
parently insignificant  ration  of  three  quarts  of  meal. 

Essentially  the  same  result  was  reached  by  Salmon  (Joe. 
cit.\  though  from  different  data.  These  calculations,  of 
course,  are  based  on  somewhat  uncertain  assumptions  re- 
garding the  amount  of  water  drunk  and  the  proportion  of 
it  which  is  evaporated,  and  therefore  make  no  claim 
to  accuracy.  The  only  object  of  introducing  them  here 
is  to  show  that  it  is  not  at  all  impossible  that  exclu- 
sive meal  feeding  can  maintain  an  animal.     The  practica- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  383 

bility  and  desirability  of  this  method  of  feeding  are  matters 
to  be  decided  by  practical  experience,  while  the  question 
of  the  sufficiency  of  such  a  ration  can  be  finally  settled 
only  by  exact  scientific  experiments. 

§  2.  Sheep. 

Sheep  need  relatively  more  Food  than  Cattle. — It 

is  to  be  assumed  a  priori  that  the  quantity  of  nutriment  in 
the  maintenance  fodder  of  sheep  must  be  greater  than  in 
that  of  oxen.  A  certain  quantity  of  protein  is  demanded 
for  the  growth  of  wool,  and  the  more  active  temperament 
and  greater  amount  of  movement  of  these  animals,  even 
in  the  stall,  increases  the  consumption  of  the  non-nitro- 
genous nutrients.  Moreover,  on  account  of  their  smaller 
size,  it  would  seem  that  the  loss  of  heat  by  radiation  must 
be  relatively  greater.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  might, 
perhaps,  have  been  expected  that  the  difference  between 
the  two  would  be  greater  than  it  has  been  found  to  be. 
That  it  is  not  may  be  explained,  however,  by  their  thick 
coat  of  wool,  which  hinders  the  radiation  of  heat,  and  per- 
haps also  the  evaporation  from  the  skin,  so  decreasing  the 
demand  for  heat-producing  materials.  It  is  a  well-ascer- 
tained fact  that  goats,  for  example,  under  the  same  cir- 
cumstances and  with  the  same,  live-weight,  require  more 
fodder  than  sheep. 

Experiments  in  Weende. — Experiments  on  the  main- 
tenance feeding  of  sheep  have  also  been  made  by  Henne- 
berg,*  in  Weende,  and  in  them  not  only  the  "  sensible " 
excretions,  but  also  the  products  of  respiration,  were  accu- 
rately determined ;  so  that  the  effects  of  the  feeding  on 

*Neue  Boitrage,  etc.,  1871. 


384  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

the  fat  of  the  body,  as  well  as  on  its  flesh,  could  be  ascer- 
tained. 

The  experiments  were  made  on  full-grown  (four  and 
a  half  years  old)  sheep  of  the  coarse-wooled  variety  of 
the  neighborhood  of  Gottingen  (so-called  Leine  sheep), 
weighing  per  head  about  106  lbs.  They  were  fed  exclu- 
sively on  average  meadow  hay,  and  consmned  it  at  the  rate 
of  almost  exactly  26  lbs.  per  1,000  lbs.  live-weight  (shorn 
weight),  an  amount  corresponding  to  21.4  lbs.  of  dry  matter. 
From  this  ration  1.32  lbs.  of  protein  and  10.53  lbs.  of  non- 
nitrogenous  matter  (including  0.322  lbs.  of  fat)  were  di- 
gested. If  for  the  fat  be  substituted  its  equivalent  in 
starch,  the  amount  of  non-nitrogenous  matter  becomes 
11.38  lbs. 

This  ration  caused  a  small  gain,  viz.,  0.181  lbs.  of  protein 
and  0.299  lbs.  of  fat  per  day  and  1,000  lbs.  live  weight.  It 
was  accordingly  abundantly  sufficient  to  maintain  the  ani- 
mals without  really  fattening  them.  If  the  gain  of  protein 
and  fat  be  subtracted  from  the  above  ration  (the  fat  being 
reduced  to  its  equivalent  amount  of  starch  by  multiplying 
it  by  2.5),  we  shall  have  the  following  amounts : 

Protein  1.14  pounds. 

Carbhydrates,  ^  10  G5       " 

Fat,  f 

Total  dry  matter 26.00       " 

Nutritive  ratio 1 :  9.3 

In  reality,  however,  a  greater  deduction  should  be  made, 
at  least  from  the  protein,  since  changes  in  the  amount 
of  this  nutrient  affect  the  consumption  of  protein  far  more 
than  its  gain  or  loss.  It  is  therefore  probable  that  the 
above  quantities  would  have  been  rather  more  than  suffi- 
cient to  maintain  the  sheep. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


385 


This  result  agrees  well  with  those  obtained  by  Schulze 
&  Marcker  in  their  experiments  on  sheep,  already  referred 
to  on  page  152.  These  experiments  were  made  on  the 
same  two  sheep  which  were  used  in  the  above  experiments 
by  Ilenneberg,  and  also  on  two  others  of  the  same  breed. 

If,  following  Wolff,  we  divide  the  twenty  experiments 
which  were  made,  into  two  groups,  according  to  the  total 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients,  and  then  subdivide  these 
groups  according  to  the  wider  or  narrower  nutritive  ratio, 
we  obtain  the  following  averages,  each  of  five  experiments, 
per  day  and  1,000  lbs.  live-weight : 


Digested  pro- 
tein. 
Lbs. 

Digested  carbhy- 

drates  and  fat. 

Lbs. 

Total 

nutrients. 

Lbs. 

Nutritive  ratio. 

Gain  (  +  )  or  loss 

(— )  of  protein. 

Lbs. 

1.04 

9.49 

10.53 

1  :    9.1 

-0.042 

1.56 

9.54 

11.11 

1  :    0.1 

-0.006 

1.11 

11.70 

12.81 

1  :  10.5 

+0.124 

2.31 

12.25 

14.56 

1  :    5.3 

+0.245 

Plainly,  the  third  ration  gave,  on  the  whole,  the  most 
satisfactory  results,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  it  corresponds 
quite  closely  with  the  results  of  Henneberg's  experiments, 
while  the  average  of  the  first  three  does  not  vary  much 
from  it,  viz.  : 

Digestible  protein 1.24  pounda. 

"  carbhydrates  and  fat 10.24       " 

Nutritive  ratio 1 :  8. 3 

It  was  also  found  in  these  experiments  that,  as  in  the 
case  of  oxen,  a  too  narrow  nutritive  ratio  is  to  be  avoided 
in  simple  feeding  for  maintenance. 
17 


386 


MANUAL    OF   CATTLE- FEEDING. 


Experiments  have  also  been  made  hy  AVolff,"''  in  Ilohen- 
lieim,  upon  the  feeding  of  sheep.  Animals  of  three  dif- 
ferent breeds  were  used,  viz.,  Merinos,  Southdowns,  and 
the  so-called  Wiirthemberg  bastard  breed  (grade  Merinos), 
and  each  received  two  different  rations,  viz.,  per  1,000  lbs., 
shorn  weight : 


Digestible 

protein. 

Lbs. 

Digestible  carb- 

hydrates  ami 

fat. 

Lbs. 

Total. 
Lbs. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

I 

1.37 
1.23 

8.92 
9.93 

10.29 
11.15 

1  :6.1 

II 

1  :8.1 

,  These  quantities  agree  well  with  those  used  in  Weende, 
except  that  the  quantity  of  carbhj-d rates,  and  consequently 
the  total  amount  of  nutritive  matters,  is  somewhat  less,  a 
fact  which  explains  the  slight  decrease  of  weight  which 
the  animals  suffered,  especially  when  the  daily  growth  of 
wool  was  taken  into  account. 

The  loss  of  weight  was  somewhat  greater  with  the  so- 
called  "  electoral "  sheep  (Merinos)  than  with  the  South- 
downs  or  the  natives.  Sheep  of  the  fine-wooled  breeds 
are  mostly  smaller  and  of  a  more  delicate  build  than  those 
of  the  coarse-wooled  races,  and  consequently  demand  a 
somewhat  greater  amount  of  nutriment  for  the  same  live- 
weight  than  the  latter. 

The  general  result  of  the  researches  hitherto  made  is 
that  mature  sheep  which  are  kept  solely  for  the  produc- 
tion of  wool  may  be  kept  constantly  in  good  condition  by 
rations  corresponding  to  the  following  feeding-standards : 


Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  I.,  533. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


387 


Feeding  Standards— 

-PER  1,000  Pounds  Live-Weight 

,  PER  Day. 

Protein. 
Lbs. 

Carbhydrates 

and  fat. 

Lbs. 

Total 

dry  matter. 

Lbs. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Coarse- wooled  breeds. . 
Fine-wooled         " 

1.2 
1.5 

10.8 
12.0 

20-23 
20-23 

1:9 

1:8 

The  daily  growth  of  washed  wool  amounts  to  from  0.12 
to  0.20  lb.,  according  to  breed  and  individual  peculiarities. 
All  the  above  figures  are  for  1,000  lbs.  live-weight,  exclu- 
sive of  the  wool  (shorn  weight),  but  it  is  probable  that  they 
can  be  applied  directly  to  unsheared  animals,  without  any 
considerable  error ;  at  any  rate,  the  failure  would  be  on 
the  safe  side,  and  we  should  have  the  assurance  that  the 
calculated  quantity  of  food  w^as  abundantly  supplied. 

Production  of  Wool. — Thus  far  we  have  not  specially 
regarded  the  growth  of  the  wool  in  considering  the  proper 
ration  for  sheep.  The  wool,  however,  may  be  the  princi- 
pal object  in  view,  and  demands  a  more  detailed  consider- 
ation. 

The  feeding  has  a  decided  influence  upon  the  production 
of  wool,  but  only  within  certain  limits.  Full-grown  ani- 
mals do  not  yield  noticeably  more  wool  under  the  influence 
of  a  fattening  fodder  than  of  one  which  suffices  to  keep 
them  in  good  condition  without  causing  any  essential  in- 
crease of  their  real  weight  (exclusive  of  wool). 

This  is  shown  by  experiments  made  in  Weende"^  on 
Negretti  sheep,  which,  on  a  maintenance  ration,  produced 
in  the  average  of  seven  experiments,  0.141  lb.  of  wool  per 
1,000  lbs.  live-weight,  per  day,  equal  to  0.273  per  cent,  of 


*  Jour.  f.  Landw.,  1858,  p.  362  ;  1860,  p.  1  ;  1861,  p.  63. 


388 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


the  sliorn  weight,  while  as  the  average  of  fourteen  experi- 
ments with  a  fattening  ration,  they  produced  the  same 
quantity  of  wool,  0.1  J:l  lb.  per  1,000  lbs.  live-weight,  per 
day,  or  0.286  per  cent,  of  their  shorn  weight. 

An  equally  decided  result  was  yielded  by  experiments  in 
Hohenliehn,*  with  lambs.  A  very  rich  ration,  consisting 
of  hay  and  an  abundance  of  oats,  caused  the  live  weight  to 
increase  in  the  course  of  nine  months  from  55.9  lbs.  to 
101.8  lbs.  per  head,  while  a  ration  consisting  exclusively 
of  meadow  hay,  at  first  of  excellent  and  later  of  average 
quality,  caused  the  weight  to  increase  from  55.0  lbs.  to 
only  79.5  lbs.  The  richly-fed  animals  were,  at  the  close  of 
the  experiment,  well  fattened,  while  those  fed  with  hay 
were  simply  in  good  condition,  but  the  quantity  of  pure 
wool  produced  in  the  two  cases  was  almost  identical.  It 
was  noticeable  in  these  trials  that  the  wool  of  the  grain- 
fed  animals  remained  very  clean  and  wdiite  in  appearance, 
while  that  of  the  hay-fed  ones  had  the  usual  dirty  appear- 
ance, and  even  wdien  washed  appeared  somewhat  gray  in 
comparison  with  the  other. 

The  following  were  the  quantities  of  wool  obtained  per 
head  in  the  two  cases : 


Fodder. 

Unwashed  wool. 
Lbs. 

Washed  wool. 
Lbs. 

Wool  with  fat  re- 
moved. 
Lbs. 

Hay 

5.92 

4.79 

3.54 

3.25 

2.46 

Hay  and  Grain 

2.39 

The  quantities  of  pure  wool  were  as  good  as  identical. 
If,  however,  the  fodder  of  sheep  is  insufficient  for  their 

*  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  IL,  221. 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEBING.  389 

maintenance  in  good  condition,  tlie  case  becomes  dif- 
ferent. From  the  numerous  experiments  in  Weende,  the 
conclusion  could  be  drawn  that,  although  the  growth  of 
the  wool  did  not  always  suffer  when  the  weight  of  the 
animals  decreased  someichat^  such  a  diminution  was  un- 
avoidable if  the  decrease  passed  a  certain  limit.  In  one 
such  case,  for  example,  the  daily  production  of  wool 
amounted  to  only  0.23T  per  cent,  of  the  shorn  weight 
against  0.292-0.306  per  cent,  with  better  food. 

It  was  also  found  that  rations  which  did  not  fully  suffice 
to  maintain  the  animals  unaltered,  produced  less  ill  effect 
on  the  growth  of  the  wool  when  they  were  comparatively 
rich  in  protein,  and  that,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
ration  which  is  the  richer  in  protein  is  to  be  preferred. 
The  limits  within  which  this  is  applicable  in  maintenance 
feeding,  have  been  already  indicated. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  appears  to  be  a  limit  below 
which  a  decrease  in  the  fodder  does  not  decrease  the  growth 
of  the  wool. 

The  most  wool  seems  to  be  produced  when  the  animals 
are  thoroughly  well  fed,  but  not  fattened.  If  the  daily  ra- 
tion be  increased  beyond  what  is  necessary  for  this,  no 
effect  is  produced  on  the  growth  of  wool,  but  if  the  ration 
falls  much  below  this  minimum,  the  amount  of  wool  also 
falls,  to  a  certain  extent.  The  growth  of  the  wool,  how- 
ever, is  not  directly  dependent  on  the  food,  and  will  con- 
tinue even  in  the  absence  of  it  or  w^hen  it  is  small  in 
amount,  and  is  only  affected  by  it  within  the  limits  just 
mentioned. 

This  is  well  shown  by  some  Ilohenheim  observations. 
The  sheep,  at  the  begiiming  of  the  experiments,  were  in  a 
well-fed  condition,  and  were  divided  into  ^yq  lots  of  six 
head   each.      Two   lots  (III.  and   IV.)  received  a  rather 


390 


MANUAL   OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 


nitrogenous  ration,  consisting  of  hay  and  beans,  in  sncli 
quantity  as  just  to  maintain  tlieir  weight  and  condi- 
tion.  Two  other  lots  (I.  and  11.)  received  a  less  quantity 
of  a  ration  poorer  in  protein,  so  that  tlieir  average  weight 
per  head  decreased  in  121  days  from  lUl.-l  lbs.  to  97  lbs., 
while  a  fifth  lot  (Y.)  received  still  less  of  a  still  poorer  fod- 
der, and  decreased  in  average  weight  per  head  from  101.1 
lbs.  to  89.3  lbs.  Lots  I.  and  U.  were  fed  with  straw  and 
mangolds,  and  lot  Y.  with  about  two-thirds  hay  and  one- 
third  oat-straw. 

The  amount  of  wool  produced  by  each  lot  was  the  fol- 
lowing : 


Lot. 

Washed   wool. 
Lbs. 

Washed  wool  in 

per  cent,  of  shorn 

weight. 

I 

8.5 

7.0 

9.0 

11.0 

8.1 

) 

II 

y        26.5 

Ill 

) 

IV 

[        31.9 

V 

27  3 

Lots  III.  and  R^.,  in  which  the  original  well-fed  condi- 
tion was  preserved,  produced  the  most  wool,  and  judging 
from  the  experiments  already  described,  it  is  probable 
that,  had  the  fodder  been  increased  so  as  to  fatten  the 
animals,  no  greater  growth  of  wool  would  have  taken 
place. 

In  lots  I.  and  11.  the  poorer  fodder  had  as  its  effect  a 
lessened  growth  of  wool,  while  in  lot  Y.,  in  which  the  fod- 
der was  still  poorer,  the  growth  of  wool  continued,  but  at 
the  expense  of  the  body,  which  decreased  decidedly  in 
weight. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  391 

To  sum  up  the  whole  matter,  the  growth  of  wool  is  a 
process  which  goes  on  with  tolerable  uniformity  as  long  as 
the  animal  lives,  and  whose  rapidity  is  determined  by  breed 
and  individual  peculiarities,  and  only  secondarily  and  with- 
in rather  narrow  limits  by  the  food.  All  that  is  necessary 
or  profitable  in  the  way  of  feeding  is  to  keep  the  sheep  in 
good  condition ;  if  they  lose  weight  seriously,  the  yield  of 
wool  suffers  to  some  extent,  though  the  animals  suffer  more, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  fattening  is  simply  an  unneces- 
sary use  of  fodder  so  long  as  wool  is  the  sole  object,  since 
it  does  not  increase  the  amount  of  the  latter. 

The  feeding  standards  already  given  may  be  safely  taken 
as  a  guide,  since  they  appear  to  be  abundantly  sufficient 
to  maintain  a  good,  well-fed  condition.  It  has,  however, 
been  generally  found  that  when  the  fodder  consists  largely 
of  roots  and  straw,  more  digestible  protein  is  required  than 
when  it  is  composed  mostly  of  hay.  We  have  already 
learned  that  a  large  part  of  the  "  crude  protein  "  of  roots 
is  really  not  protein  at  all,  and  we  have  here,  perhaps,  an 
indication  of  the  less  nutritive  value  of  the  non-protein. 


CHAPTEPv  III. 


FATTENING, 


^,„f"i4^1 


§  1.  Cattle. 

The  fattening  of  animals  has  for  its  object  eliieily  the 
formation  and  deposition  of  fat  in  the  body,  and  to  a  far 
less  degree  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  liesh.  According 
to  the  researches  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  in  England  (p.  9), 
the  amount  of  fat  formed  is  about  ten  times  that  of  the 
protein  deposited  in  the  body,  and  more  than  twice  that  of 
the  fresh  flesh.     The  experiments  of  Ilenneberg,  Kern  & 

Wattenberg  (p.  ITS)  on  the  fat- 
tening of  sheep  also  showed  a 
large  formation  of  fat  and  a  small 
one  of  flesh. 

In  very  fat  animals  the  fat  is 
not  only  deposited  in  the  fat-tis- 
sues propel-,  but  is  found  between 
the  flbres  of  the  muscles  them- 
selves, as  illustrated  by  Fig.  7, 
where  a  represents  the  nmscular 
tibres,  and  h  the  fat-cells.  Tlie 
tenderness  and  juiciness,  as  well 
as  the  nutritive  value  of  the  re- 
siflting  meat  is  thus  considerably 
increased. 

The  general  laws  of  the  formation  of  flesh  and  fat  have 
already  been  treated  of   at  considerable   length   in  Part 


Fig.  7.— Fat-Cells  in  Muscle. 
(Sftttegast.) 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


393 


T.,  but  the  most  important  points  may  be  repeated  here 
in  their  applicati(jn  to  practical  pui-poses.  It  will  be  con- 
venient to  take  them  np  in  connection  witli  the  fattening 
of  cattle,  though  the  same  general  laws  are  of  course  ap- 
plicable to  all  domestic  animals. 

Experiments  in  Weende. — The  few  experiments  on 
the  fattening  of  cattle  which  have  as  yet  been  executed 
were  made  at  the  Weende  Experiment  Station  in  the  years 
1859,  1860,  and  1865.'^  In  these  experiments  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  fodder,  as  well  as  the  gain  of  flesh,  was  de- 
termined. The  experiments  in  1859  and  18G0  extended 
over  a  considerable  time,  while  those  in  1865  were  of  so 
short  duration  as  to  render  the  results  of  less  value.  The 
following  table  contains  the  more  important  results  of  the 
experiments,  calculated  per  day  and  1,000  pounds  live- 
weight  : 


Date. 


1859 


18G0 


186.^ 


Protein 

digested. 

Lbs. 


1.56 
1.50 
1.45 
1.55 
1.76 
1.83 
1.73 


Garb- 
hydrates 
and  fat 
digested. 
Lbs. 


8.50 
8.38 
11.10 
12.70 
8.90 
7.68 
8.62 


Nutritive 

ratio. 

1: 


5.5 
5.6 

■7.6 
8.2 
5.1 
4.2 
5.0 


Length  of 
experi- 
ment. 
Days. 


56i 
56i 
71 
45 
17 1 
19 1 
17 1 


Gain  peb  Day. 


Live- 
weight. 
Lbs. 


1.36 
1.43 
1.83 
1.30 
0.42 
1.45 
0.21 


FlcBh. 
Lbs. 


0.68 
-0.57 
0.89 
1.44 
1.56 
1.53 
2.22 


*  "  Beitrage  zur  Fiitterung  der  Wiederkiiuer,"  Heft  2,  p.  276.  and 
"  Neue  Bcitrage,"  p.  314. 
f  Exclusive  of  the  preliminary  feeding. 
17* 


394  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Ko  extended  conclusions  can  be  dra^^Tl  from  so  few  ex- 
periments. The  gain  of  live-weiglit  was  comparatively  slow 
in  all  these  trials,  and  the  rations  were  evidently  not  suffi- 
cient to  cause  a  rapid  fattening.  In  several  cases  it  will 
be  observed  that  the  gain  of  fresh  flesh  is  greater  than  the 
increase  of  live-weight.  This  may  indicate  a  loss  of  some 
other  substance  (probably  water)  from  the  body,  or  may  be 
due  to  inaccuracies  in  the  determination  of  the  true  live- 
weight. 

In  a  general  way  we  may  state,  as  the  result  of  these 
trials,  that  a  slow  fattening  may  be  effected  by  a  ration  con- 
taining per  day  and  1,000  pounds  live-weight 

Digestible  protein 1.5-  2.0  pounda 

Digestible  carbhydrates  and  fat 8.0-13.0     *' 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  quantity  of  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients  does  not  vary  greatly  from  that  needed  for  main- 
tenance, while  the  amount  of  protein  is  considerably 
greater.  We  have  here  another  example  of  a  gain  of 
flesh  and  fat  produced  by  the  addition  of  protein  to  a  ra- 
tion poor  in  that  substance.     (Compare  p.  liS  et  seq.) 

Fat  from  Carbhydrates. — In  case  a  more  rapid  fat- 
tening is  desired,  it  is  plain  that  more  food  must  be  given ; 
but  whether  the  increase  shall  consist  of  protein  or  of  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients,  or  both,  can  be  determined  at  present 
only  by  theoretical  considerations. 

Here  the  question  of  the  formation  of  fat  fi'om  carbhy- 
li'ates  comes  in.  We  have  seen  that  many  facts  seem  to 
indicate  the  possibility  of  such  a  formation,  and  the  query 
naturally  arises,  wdiether,  since  the  chief  object  of  fatten- 
ing is  a  formation  of  fat,  an  increase  of  the  carbhydrates 
and  fat  of  the  fodder  will  not  effect  the  desired  object, 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  395 

more  especially  since  the  protein  consumption  is  thereby 
diminished. 

There  is  no  doubt  that,  with  a  given  amount  of  protein 
in  the  ration,  the  addition  of  non -nitrogenous  nutrients 
will  effect  a  gain  of  both  flesh  and  fat ;  but  several  con- 
siderations forbid  the  use  of  too  large  quantities  of  carbhy- 
drates  and  fat. 

In  the  first  place,  if  the  fodder  contains  too  large  a  pro- 
portion of  non-nitrogenous  matter,  the  animal  will  not 
receive  enough  protein  to  cause  any  gain  of  flesh  or  to 
supply  material  for  the  formation  of  new  fat-cells. 

In  the  second  place,  experiments  on  sheep  have  shown 
that  the  fattening  of  these  animals  is  much  more  rapid  and 
certain  on  a  ration  containing  a  liberal  proportion  of  pro- 
tein, and  there  is  no  evident  reason  why  the  same  thing 
should  not  be  true  of  cattle.  The  formation  of  fat  from 
carbhydrates  cannot  be  regarded  as  proved.  Still  less 
have  we  any  knowledge  of  the  conditions  under  which  it 
takes  place,  and  consequently  we  must  for  the  present  re- 
gard them  as  only  indirect  aids  in  fattening. 

Feeding  Standard. — The  considerations  just  presented 
render  it  manifest  that  the  feeding  standard  for  fattening 
cattle  must  vary  considerably  under  different  circum- 
stances. 

For  slow  fattening  we  might  use  such  a  ration  as  that 
given  on  page  394,  viz. : 

Total  dry  matter 18-20  pounds. 

Digestible  protein. 2       " 

"         carbhydrates  and  fat 13       " 

Nutritive  ratio 1:6.5 

If  a  more  rapid  fattening  is  desired,  two  ways  of  attain- 
ing the  object  present  themselves. 

By  increasing  the  non-nitrogenous  matters  of  the  above 


396  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

ration  to  perhaps  IG  pounds,  it  is  probable  that  a  saving  of 
protein  and  a  somewhat  greater  gain  of  fat  might  be  ef- 
fected. It  is  to  be  considered,  however,  that  by  making 
the  nutritive  ratio  so  wide  (1  :  8)  we  incur  the  risk  of  im- 
perfect digestion  of  the  protein.    (Compare  page  280  et  seq.) 

Probably  the  nutritive  ratio  1 :  6.5  is  as  wide  as  it  is  ad- 
visable to  use  in  most  cases,  and  a  more  rapid  fattening 
could  then  be  caused  by  simply  increasing  the  total  quan- 
tity of  nutrients  per  day,  leaving  the  proportions  of  pro- 
tein and  non-nitrogenous  matters  unchanged,  but  using, 
if  necessary,  more  concentrated  feeding-stuffs  in  order  to 
avoid  too  bulky  a  fodder.  The  quantities  of  nutrients 
recommended  in  the  following  paragraphs  and  in  the  table 
of  feeding  standards  in  the  Appendix  are  calculated  for 
rapid  fattening.  As  already  stated,  they  are  largely  de- 
rived from  theoretical  considerations,  and  hence  are  to  be 
taken  only  as  a  general  guide. 

Preliminary  Feeding. — Cattle  that  are  much  reduced 
in  flesh  and  fat  cannot  be  at  once  quickly  fattened.  For 
this  purpose  they  must  first  be  brought  into  a  well-nour- 
ished condition.  It  is  impossible  to  render  the  animal 
body  rich  in  flesh  and  fat  unless  it  already  contains  a  cer- 
tain not  too  small  amount  of  organized  and  circulatory  pro- 
tein, by  means  of  which  only  it  is  capable  of  digesting, 
resorbing,  and  storing  up  protein  and  fat. 

In  order  to  bring  about  such  a  condition,  the  cattle  may, 
for  example,  be  fed  for  two  or  three  weeks  chiefly  on  clo- 
ver hay,  with  a  moderate  addition  of  grain  and  oil  cake, 
brewers'  grains,  malt  sprouts,  beans,  or  some  similar  highly 
nitrogenous  bye-fodder,  so  that  the  ration  contains,  per 
1,000  lbs.  live- weight,  about  2.5  lbs.  of  protein  and  12.5 
lbs.  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients,  making  the  nutritive 
ratio  quite  narrow  (1  :  5). 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  397 

The  effect  of  such  a  fodder,  as  will  be  gathered  from  the 
chapter  on  the  formation  of  flesh,  is  to  increase  the  stock 
of  circulatory  protein  in  the  body  (and,  of  course,  the  rate 
of  its  decomposition  also)  without  causing  any  essential 
gain  of  flesh.  A  slight  deposition  of  fat  might  take  place 
in  the  tissues,  but,  with  such  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio,  most 
of  it  would  probably  be  oxidized. 

First  Period. — After  this  condition  of  affairs  has  been 
well  established  by  the  preliminary  feeding,  the  real  fat- 
tening begins. 

In  the  first  period  the  quantity  of  the  non  nitrogenous 
nutrients  is  increased  to  about  16.25  lbs.,  thus  considerably 
widening  the  nutritive  ratio  (1  :  6.5).  The  effect  is  that 
the  rate  of  decomposition  of  the  circulatory  protein  is  de- 
creased and  a  part  of  the  albuminoids  of  the  food,  instead 
of  being  rapidly  oxidized,  is  converted  into  the  stable 
"  organized  protein."  At  the  same  time,  much  of  the  fat 
coming  from  the  decomposition  of  the  protein,  as  well  as 
that  contained  in  the  food,  is  protected  from  oxidation 
and  deposited  in  the  body. 

Second  Period. — After  considerable  fat  has  been  de- 
posited in  the  animal  (after  about  a  third,  perhaps,  of  the 
period  of  fattening  has  passed)  it  is  advisable  to  gradually 
increase  the  quantity  of  protein  in  the  food  to  about  3.0  lbs. 
per  day,  thus  narrowing  the  nutritive  ratio  again  to  1  :  5.5. 
By  thus  increasing  the  proportion  of  protein,  a  more  rapid 
fattening  may  be  attained,  while  the  fat  already  deposited 
in  the  body  will  prevent  any  great  increase  of  the  protein 
consumption  in  the  body.     (Compare  page  133.) 

Fodder  of  the  composition  here  indicated  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  real  fattening  fodder,  and  to  be  continued 
unaltered  for  a  considerable  time. 

Third  Period. — In  practice  it  is  often  customary,  to- 


398  MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING-. 

ward  the  end  of  the  fattening,  to  again  give  the  animals  a 
fodder  somewhat  poorer  in  protein  ;  for  example,  repla- 
cing the  oil  cake  or  other  nitrogenous  bye-fodder  by  grain. 
An  essential  advantage  may  be  gained  in  this  way,  if  the 
fodder  is  thus  increased  in  palatability,  as  may  often  be 
the  case,  or  if  the  total  quantity  of  digestible  nutrients  is 
increased.  It  is  likewise  possible  that  a  wider  nutritive 
ratio  toward  the  close  of  the  fattening  may  cause  more 
protein  to  be  converted  into  the  organized  form,  but  it 
would  seem  hardly  advisable  to  make  the  ratio  wider  than 
1  :  6. 

Addition  of  Oil  to  Fodder. — Increasing  artificially  the 
amount  of  fat  in  the  fodder  by  the  direct  addition  of  pure 
fat,^.  ^.,  linseed  oil,  to  the  amount  of  0.5—1.0  lb.  for  oxen, 
and  30 — 40  grms.  for  hogs  per  day  and  head,  has  often 
been  found  to  have  a  good  effect  in  increasing  the  live- 
weight  of  the  animals,  more  especially  when  the  nutritive 
ratio  was  narrow.  By  its  means,  as  we  have  learned,  the 
gain  both  of  flesh  and  fat  is  favored.  Such  an  addition 
would  be  in  place  in  the  second  period  of  fattening  when 
the  fodder  is  most  concentrated. 

This  practice,  however,  demands  great  care  and  judg- 
ment, and  does  not  seem  as  yet  to  have  found  favor  in 
practice ;  the  purer  fats  occurring  in  trade  are  too  expen- 
sive, and  a  favorable  result  is  by  no  means  assured.  In- 
deed, it  is  not  seldom  the  case  that  injurious  consequences 
to  the  appetite  and  digestion,  especially  of  the  ruminants, 
may  result  from  the  use  of  pure  fats  or  oils,  especially  if 
the  quantity  is  at  all  large  or  the  use  of  it  is  continued  too 
long. 

I^otwithstanding  this,  however,  the  amount  of  fat  in  the 
rations  of  fattening  animals  is  certainly  a  point  worthy  of 
attention,  and  it  should  be  our  endeavor  to  increase  it  as 


MATq-UAL    OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  399 

much  as  can  safely  be  done,  especially  when  the  nutritive 
ratio  is  narrow.  This  can  be  accomplished  without  special 
expense  by  the  use  of  oil  cake,  cotton-seed  cake,  palm-nut 
cake,  or  sometimes  by  the  direct  use  of  flaxseed. 

Preparation  of  Fodder. — In  rapid  fattening  it  is  espe- 
cially important  to  induce  the  animals  to  eat  as  large  a 
quantity  as  possible  of  nutritious  and  easily-digestible  fod- 
der by  making  the  latter  as  palatable  as  may  be.  For 
this  purpose  the  fodder  should  be  properly  prepared,  and 
a  suitable  addition  of  salt  aids  in  securing  the  same  end. 
By  thus  properly  preparing  the  fodder  so  as  to  increase  its 
palatability,  and  consequently  the  amount  eaten,  great  ad- 
vantages may  often  be  gained,  even  though,  as  we  have 
seen,  neither  the  digestibility  nor  the  real  nutritive  value 
of  a  given  quantity  are  thereby  increased. 

Fattening  fodder,  on  account  of  its  concentrated  na- 
ture, requires  the  addition  of  considerable  salt,  especially 
when  large  quantities  of  potatoes  or  roots  are  used.  Care 
must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  increase  the  amount  of 
salt  beyond  what  is  necessary,  since  both  the  salt  itself  and 
the  greater  consumption  of  water  which  it  causes  increase 
the  destruction  of  protein  and  fat  in  the  body  (pp.  135  and 
236),  and  thus  occasion  a  waste  of  the  most  costly  ingre- 
dient of  the  fodder  and  hinder  the  gain  of  flesh. 

For  the  same  reason  a  too  watery  fodder  must  be 
avoided,  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained.  The  pro- 
portion of  water  to  dry  matter  of  the  fodder  should  not 
exceed  four  or  five  to  one  for  cattle,  and  two  or  three  to 

one  for  sheep. 

§  2.  Sheep. 

Proportion  of  Protein. — All  the  experiments  on  sheep 
hitherto  made  agree  in  showing  that  with  these  animals 
the  rapidity  of  fattening  is  chiefly  dependent  on  the  sup- 


400 


MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FKKDINa. 


ply  of  protein.  As  already  stated  in  another  connection, 
numerous  experiments  on  the  fattening  of  sheep  have  been 
carried  out  at  the  various  German  experiment  stations.  In 
the  following  table,  by  Wolff,  already  given  on  page  178, 
fifty-nine  of  these  experiments  are  divided  into  foul- 
groups,  according  to  the  amount  of  digestible  protein  con- 
tained in  the  fodder, 
was  about  ninety  pounds. 


The  average  weight  of  the  animals 


Digested  per  Day  and  Head. 
Average. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Increase 
of  live- 
weight  per 
day  and 
head. 
Lbs. 

Dressed 
weight  in 
per  cent, 
of  live- 
weight. 

No.  of  Experiments. 

Albumi- 
noids. 
Lbs. 

Non-nitro- 
genous 
nutrients. 
Lbs. 

Total 

nutrients. 

Lbs. 

7     

0.220 
0.2G8 
0.329 
0.384 

1.648 

1.557 
1.588 
1.538 

1.868 

1.825 
1.917 
1.922 

1  :  7.49 
1  :5.81 
1  :4.70 
1  :4.01 

0.111 
0.158 
0.189 
0.206 

48.0 

13 

51.9 

20 

53.5 

19 

54.9 

These  results  show  plainly  the  importance  of  a  liberal 
supply  of  protein  in  the  fodder  of  fattening  sheep.  While 
the  total  amount  of  nutrients  digested  was  nearly  the 
same  in  all  the  groups,  those  in  which  the  proportion 
of  protein  was  greatest  show  not  only  a  more  rapid  gain 
but  also  a  larger  proportion  of  dressed  weight  to  live 
weight. 

Feeding  Standard. — As  in  the  case  of  cattle,  it  is  im- 
possible to  give  any  single  standard  suited  to  all  cases. 
Any  one  of  the  rations  of  the  foregoing  table  might  serve 
as  a  feeding  standard,  the  fattening  being  more  rapid,  and 
at  the  same  time  more  expensive,  the  greater  the  propor- 
tion of  protein. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDINO.  401 

Sheep  can  consume,  relatively,  somewhat  more  fodder 
(total  dry  matter)  than  cattle,  and  can  also  bear  more 
concentrated  food.  We  may  perhaps  put  the  maximum 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients  at  18  pounds  per  day  and 
1,000  pounds  live-weight  for  the  latter,  and  at  about  20—21 
pomids  for  the  former. 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  a  due  proportion  of  pro- 
tein in  the  fattening  of  sheep,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
smallest  amount  given  in  the  preceding  table,  viz.,  0.22  lb. 
per  day  and  head,  or  about  2.5  lbs.  per  day  and  1,000  lb.?, 
live-weight,  is  the  least  quantity  with  which  a  good  result 
can  be  secured  in  most  cases.  This  amount,  with  17.5  lbs. 
of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients,  gives  20  lbs.  of  total  digest- 
ible matters,  and  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1  :  7. 

Such  a  ration  may  be  considered  as  approximating  to 
the  minimum  ration  for  fattening  purposes.  By  increasing 
the  digestible  protein  to  4.2  lbs.  and  decreasing  the  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients  to  16.8  lbs.,  we  get  a  ration  having  a 
nutritive  ratio  of  1:4,  and  containing  21  lbs.  of  total  di- 
gestible matters.  This  is  a  very  concentrated  ration,  and 
its  narrow  nutritive  ratio  and  large  amount  of  protein 
must  cause  a  very  considerable  protein  consumption.  An 
increase  of  the  amount  of  protein  beyond  this  point  will 
hardly  ever  be  advisable,  since  in  that  case  the  non-nitro- 
genous nutrients  must  be  decreased  still  more,  not  leaving 
enough  to  protect  the  protein  and  fat  of  the  food  from  un- 
necessary oxidation. 

Between  the  two  limits  just  indicated,  the  choice  of  a 
feeding  standard  will  be  determined  by  the  special  condi- 
tions of  each  case.  As  in  the  case  of  cattle,  a  preliminary 
feeding  may  often  be  necessary,  and  a  rather  w^ide  nutri- 
tive ratio  is  to  be  recommended  in  the  earlier  stages  of  fat- 
tening, which  may  subsequently  be  gradually  narrowed  to 


402  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

such  an  extent  as  may  prove  profitable.  If  the  sheep  are 
in  a  well-fed  condition  at  first,  the  preliminary  feeding 
may  be  omitted  and  the  first  period  somewhat  shortened, 
the  second  being  correspondingly  lengthened. 

Quantity  of  Water. — A  good  fattening  fodder  for 
sheep  must  not  be  too  watery ;  hence,  large  quantities  of 
l)rewer's  or  distiller's  grains,  or  even  of  roots,  are  of  far  less 
benefit  to  these  animals  than  to  cattle.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  use  of  potatoes  allows  a  more  favorable  ratio  (about 
1 :  2 — 3)  between  water  and  total  dry  matter  to  be  obtained. 
The  best  results  are  generally  reached,  however,  when 
suitable  kinds  of  grain  or  its  bye-products  are  used,  along 
with  good  hay. 

Best  Age  for  Fattening". — Sheep  can  be  fattened  most 
rapidly  at  an  age  of  from  one  and  one-half  to  three  years. 
It  is  true  that,  with  rich  fodder,  the  same  quantity  of  nutri- 
ents will  cause  as  great  or  even  a  greater  increase  of  live- 
weight  in  yearlings  as  in  somewhat  older  animals,  a  fact 
which  is  true  of  all  young  animals  in  rapid  growth.  Such 
,  animals,  however,  are  usually  not  as  desirable  for  the 
butcher,  since  the  flesh  remains  watery,  and  the  dressed 
weight,  and  especially  the  quantity  of  fat,  is  generally 
smaU.  Only  when  the  lambs  are  taken  as  young  as  pos- 
sible and  fed  very  highly  is  it  possible  to  attain,  at  great  ex- 
pense, the  same  result  which  may  be  reached  in  a  far  shorter 
time,  often  less  than  three  months,  with  older  animals. 

The  result  of  fattening  is  always  most  favorable,  both  in 
quality  and  quantity,  with  tolerably  mature  animals.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  animals  are  allowed  to  become  too 
old  and  the  fattening  is  begun  after  they  have  reached  the 
age  of  perhaps  four  years,  a  large  deposition  of  fat,  it  is 
true,  takes  place,  but  the  flesh  has  far  less  palatability  than 
that  of  younger  animals. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  403 

Effect  of  Shearing. — It  is  a  noteworthy  fact,  and  one 
which  has  been  confirmed  by  numerous  experiments,  that 
fattening  sheep  after  being  shorn  increase  in  live- weight 
much  more  rapidly  than  immediately  before  shearing.  It 
has  been  observed,  moreover,  in  some  cases,  that  while 
before  shearing  the  more  nitrogenous  ration  produced  a 
decidedly  greater  effect  than  one  poorer  in  protein,  the  dif- 
ference between  the  two  almost  disappeared  after  shearing, 
so  far  as  the  increase  in  live-weight  Avas  affected. 

The  more  rapid  increase  in  weight  after  shearing  is  usu- 
ally explained  veiy  simply  by  the  fact  that  the  appetite  of 
the  animals  is  thereby  almost  always  increased,  so  that 
more  fodder  is  eaten.  In  one  experiment  in  Weende, 
however,  the  amount  of  fodder  consumed  remained  the 
same,  and  yet  the  gain  in  weight  was  greater  after  than 
before  shearing.  In  this  experiment  it  was  observed  that 
much  less  water  was  drunk  after  shearing,  doubtless  in 
consequence  of  decreased  perspiration,  a  fact  which  would 
favor  and  may  explain  an  increased  gain  (compare  pp.  135, 
198,  and  231).  A  similar  decrease  in  the  amount  of  water 
drunk  was  observed  in  experiments  in  Proskau ;  the  gain 
of  flesh,  however,  was  not  increased,  but  on  the  contrary 
the  protein  consumption  in  the  body  increased  some  five 
per  cent.,  and  the  gain  of  flesh  decreased  correspondingly. 
This,  of  course,  does  not  exclude  the  possibility  of  an  in- 
creased gain  of  fat,  but  it  renders  it  improbable.  The 
digestibility  of  the  fodder  was  exactly  the  same  before 
and  after  shearing. 

On  the  whole,  then,  we  must  conclude  that  the  increased 
appetite  of  the  animals  resulting  from  shearing  is,  so  far 
as  we  can  now  see,  the  chief  if  not  the  only  cause  of  the 
more  rapid  fattening. 


404  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-PEEDING. 


§3.  Swine. 

Quantity  of  Fodder. — The  amount  of  fodder  consumed 
by  swine,  in  comparison  with  other  animals,  is  very  large. 
"When  tolerably  full-grown  swine  are  fattened,  they  con- 
sume at  first  a  great  quantity  of  fodder,  amounting,  ])er 
1,000  lbs.  live- weight,  to  upward  of  40  lbs.  of  dry  matter 
per  day,  and  they  increase  in  weight  with  corresponding 
rapidity. 

As  they  grow  fatter,  however,  the  consumption  dimin- 
ishes continually,  and  finally  becomes  hardlj'  greater  than 
that  of  fattening  cattle  or  sheep.  This  fact  is  shown  still 
more  strikingly  when,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  swine 
receive  full  fattening  fodder  as  soon  as  they  are  weaned, 
and  reach  in  the  first  year  a  weight  of  some  300  lbs.  per 
head.  Under  these  circumstances,  when  the  fodder  is  a 
suitable  one  and  the  animals  belong  to  a  breed  capable  of 
easy  fattening,  an  increase  of  100  lbs.  in  the  live-weight 
may  be  obtained  by  about  400  lbs.  of  dry  matter  in  the 
fodder,  on  the  average,  or  by  300 — 400  lbs.  in  the  first 
months  and  400—500  lbs.  in  the  later  months — a  fact 
which  has  been  exemplified  by  numerous  experiments  in 
Weidlitz,  Kuschen,  Pommritz,  Ilohenheim,  and  elsewhei-e. 
Older  animals,  however,  seem  to  need  more  fodder  for 
an  equal  production.  As  much  as  500 — 600  lbs.  of  dry 
matter  appears  to  be  necessary  to  produce  an  increase  of 
100  lbs.  in  the  live- weight  of  mature  swine. 

Feeding  Standards. —The  fattening  of  mature  swine 
may  be,  for  convenience,  divided  into  three  periods,  as  is 
done  in  the  table  of  feeding  standards  in  the  Appendix ; 
but  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  nutritive  ratio  is  gradually 
made  wider  with  the  advance  of  the  fattening,  while  the 
total  quantity  both  of  dry  matter  and  of  real  nutrients  is 


MANtJAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  405 

decreased  in  accordance  with  the  facts  stated  in  the  pre- 
vious paragraph.  This  widening  of  the  nutritive  ratio  has 
shown  itself  advantageous,  especially  toward  the  end  of 
the  fattening,  in  giving  the  fat  a  firmer  consistency  and 
better  quality,  while  the  animals  are  not  as  liable  to  disease 
as  when  they  receive  more  highly  nitrogenous  fodder. 

The  plan  commonly  pursued  with  swine  is  to  feed  a  rich 
fodder  from  the  first  and  thus  carry  on  growth  and  fat- 
tening together,  and  most  experiments  on  the  fattening  of 
swine  have  been  made  in  this  way.  A  consideration  of  the 
results  of  these  experiments  will  be  found  in  Chapter  YI. 

Mineral  Matters. — It  contributes  essentially  to  main- 
taining the  health  of  the  animals  to  add  daily  a  small 
quantity  (J — |  oz.  per  head)  of  lixiviated  chalk,  or  even  of 
leached  wood-ashes,  to  the  fodder.  Such  an  addition  to 
the  food  of  young  fattening  swine  should  never  be  omitted, 
since  their  fodder  is  generally  poor  in  lime,  though  rich  in 
phosphoric  acid.     (Compare  Chapter  YI.) 

Choice  of  Fodder. — The  quantities  of  nutrients  and 
the  nutritive  ratio  called  for  by  the  feeding  standards  may, 
of  course,  be  supplied  by  combinations  of  very  various 
feeding-stuffs.  It  is  the  part  of  the  practical  farmer  to 
make  the  most  suitable  and  profitable  choice  among  these. 
But,  although  this  work  does  not  undertake  to  supply  the 
lack  of  experience,  a  few  points  may  be  mentioned ;  as,  for 
example,  that  it  has  been  the  experience  of  German  inves- 
tigators that  barley,  maize,  and  peas  (the  latter  mixed  with 
steamed  potatoes),  have  produced  excellent  results,  while 
oats  and  bran,  when  fed  in  large  quantities,  have  been  much 
less  satisfactory.  They  have  also  found  that  feeding-stuffs 
which  of  themselves  are  less  suitable  for  swine,  can  be 
made  to  produce  better  results  by  a  moderate  addition  of 
sour  milk,  or  even  of  whey. 


406  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

The  bye-products  of  tlie  manufacture  of  cheese  deserve 
attention  for  improving  tlie  rations  of  swine,  and  the  easily 
digestible  flesh-meal  (p.  319)  appears  to  exert  an  equally 
favorable  influence,  and  is  especially  to  be  recommended, 
when  obtainable,  as  an  addition  to  rations  poor  in  protein. 
Fish-scrap  would  probably  serve  the  same  purpose  equally 
well,  and  has,  moreover,  the  advantage  over  flesh-meal 
that  it  contains  a  greater  proportion  of  ash  ingredients  and 
is  particularly  rich  in  phosphate  of  lime. 


CHAPTER  lY. 

FEEDING  WORKING  ANIMALS. 
I  1.  Introductoby. 

In  regard  to  the  amounts  of  the  several  nutrients  needed 
in  the  fodder  of  working  animals,  we  have  as  yet,  unfor- 
tunately, scarcely  any  exact  experiments,  and  can  there- 
fore, for  the  present,  form  an  opinion  only  from  the 
general  laws  of  animal  nutrition  or  on  the  basis  of  practi- 
cal experience. 

Working  Animals  must  be  well  fed. — We  know  that 
the  animal  body  needs,  first  of  all,  a  muscular  system 
which  is  developed  and  inured  to  work,  to  render  it  capa- 
ble of  hard  and  continued  labor,  and  also  that  the  body 
must  be  tolerably  rich  in  both  organized  and  circulatory 
protein,  in  order  to  furnish  materials  for  the  processes  ex- 
plained in  the  chapter  on  the  production  of  work.  In 
order  to  reach  and  maintain  tins  condition  more  nutriment 
and  a  narrower  nutritive  ratio  are  necessary  than  simply 
for  the  maintenance  of  resting  animals. 

Need  of  Protein. — During  work,  as  we  have  learned, 
no  more  protein  is  destroyed  than  under  the  same  circum- 
stances without  work.  At  the  same  time,  the  protein  is  an 
essential  factor  in  the  production  of  work,  and  only  when 
its  amount  is  rendered  sufficiently  large  by  a  correspond- 
ingly large  supply  of  it  in  the  food  is  the  body  capable  of 
continued  and  severe  exertion. 


408  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Importance  of  Fat. — Wliile  tlie  decomposition  of  pro- 
tein is  essentially  regulated  bj  the  kind  and  quantity  of 
food  and  tlie  condition  of  tlie  body,  tlie  oxidation  of  the 
fat,  on  the  contrary,  is  increased  as  a  dii*ect  consequence  of 
muscular  exertion. 

To  prevent  the  consumption  of  the  body-fat  and  an 
emaciation  of  the  animals,  is  the  function  of  the  fat  and 
carbhydi-ates — the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients — of  the  food 
(see  pp.  187  and  191).  Fat,  however,  is  the  most  concen- 
trated of  all  these  nutrients,  and  it  must,  therefore,  be  of 
advantage  to  include  in  the  fodder  of  working  animals  a 
certain  quantity  of  fat.  That  this  quantity  must  not  be 
too  great  has  been  already  insisted  on.  In  any  case  it  is 
clear  that  working  animals  must  receive  a  larger  quantity 
of  non-nitrogenous  as  well  as  of  nitrogenous  nutrients  than 
is  necessary  in  rest,  and  must  receive  more,  the  greater  the 
amount  of  work  which  it  is  desired  to  obtain  from  them 

in  a  given  time. 

^  2.  Working  Oxen. 

Feeding  Standard. — Working  oxen  can  perform  a 
small  amount  of  labor  with  very  little  more  nutriment  than 
suffices  for  their  maintenance  at  rest,  but  if  they  are  to 
be  even  moderately  worked,  the  amount  of  nutritive  mat- 
ter must  be  largely  increased,  so  as  to  amount,  per  1,000 
lbs.  live-w^eight,  to  about  1.6  lb.  of  digestible  protein,  and 
at  least  12  lbs.  of  digestible  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  per 
day ;  the  nutritive  ratio  is  then  1  :  7.5.  Such  a  ration 
would  correspond  to  feeding  with  hay  of  average  quality, 
with  the  addition  of  small  quantities  of  a  nitrogenous  bye- 
fodder,  or  to  a  mixture  of  clover-hay  and  straw,  or  it  might 
also  be  prepared  chiefly  from  straw  and  roots,  with  a  suit- 
able nitrogenous  bye-fodder.  The  total  organic  matter 
may  amount  to  about  24  lbs. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDIITG.  409 

If  very  heavy  work  is  to  be  done  continuously,  the  quan- 
tity of  digestible  nutrients  should  be  still  further  increased, 
the  protein  to  as  much  as  2.4  lbs.,  and  the  non -nitrogenous 
matter  to  14.5  lbs.  (nutritive  ratio,  1  :  6). 

Fat  not  important. — The  amount  of  fat  in  the  rations 
of  working  oxen  scarcely  comes  into  consideration,  since 
these  animals,  although  they  draw  heavy  loads,  perform  their 
work  slowly,  and  hence  have  less  need  of  concentrated  res- 
piratory materials.  Moreover,  they  have  capacious  stomachs 
in  which  large  quantities  of  carbhydrates  can  be  contained, 
while  the  comparative  slowness  with  which  the  latter  move 
through  the  digestive  apparatus  permits  large  quantities  of 
them  to  be  digested  and  resorbed. 

In  the  ordinary  feed  of  working  oxen  the  fat  scarcely 
amounts  to  0.3  lb.  per  day;  in  the  ration  for  heavily 
worked  animals  it  may  sometimes  be  advisable  to  increase 
it  somewhat  by  the  use  of  a  bye-fodder  which  is  at  the 
same  time  rich  in  fat  and  in  protein  (such  as  oil  cake  or 
cotton-seed  cal^e),  so  that  the  total  amount  of  digestible 
fat  may  reach,  perhaps,  0.5  lb.  per  day. 

§  3.  Houses. 

Fodder  determined  by  Amount  ofWork. — The  food 
of  the  horse  is  in  general  very  constant  as  regards  its  ma- 
terials, consisting  chiefly  of  oats  and  hay,  with  sometimes 
more  or  less  straw,  but  the  relative  quantities  of  these 
ingredients  and  the  total  quantity  of  fodder  vary  more 
than  with  almost  any  other  animal,  and  are  almost  wholly 
determined  by  the  amount  of  work  performed. 

Is^either  the  temperament  nor  the  constitution  of  the 
horse  fit  it  to  consume  an  abundant  fodder  when  not  per- 
forming regular  work,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  as  the 

amount  of  work  demanded  increases,  the  intensity  of  the 
18 


410  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

feeding  must  also  be  increased,  until  the  ration  may  finally 
come  to  consist  almost  wholly  of  oats. 

The  Hohenheim  Experiments. — The  only  experi- 
ments on  the  feeding  of  working  horses  are  those  recently 
executed  at  Hohenheim  by  Wolff  and  others.  These  ex- 
periments were  made  primarily  to  test  the  digestibility  of 
various  feeding-stuffs  ;  but  some  information  may  be  gained 
from  them  as  to  the  amount  of  nutriment  needed  by  the 
horse.  The  experiments  were  all  made  on  the  same  ani- 
mal, and  consequently  the  results  are  strictly  applicable 
only  to  this  animal,  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  to  be  an- 
ticipated that  the  general  conclusions  drawn  fi-om  them  will 
be  confirmed  by  subsequent  investigation. 

Quantity  of  Fodder. — In  these  experiments  it  was 
found  that  a  horse  weighing  1,100 — 1,200  lbs.,  when  fed 
exclusively  on  hay,  easily  ate  22  lbs.  per  day,  but  that  27i 
lbs.  appeared  to  be  the  maximum  amount  which  he  could 
consume.  These  amounts  contained  respectively  19.4  lbs. 
and  24.0  lbs.  of  dry  matter.  In  later  experiments,  in 
which  grain  was  fed,  the  maximum  amount  of  dry  matter 
consumed  per  day  was  25  lbs. 

It  would  thus  appear  that  20 — 25  lbs.  is  about  the  limit 
for  the  amount  of  total  dry  matter  in  the  ration  of  a  horse 
weighing  1,200  lbs.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that,  as  was 
to  be  expected,  this  quantity  is  much  less  than  is  consumed 
by  ruminating  animals.  This  fact  was  strikingly  shown  in 
some  experiments  in  which  the  same  hay  was  fed  to  sheep 
for  comparison.  The  latter  animals  consumed,  per  1,000 
lbs.  live-weight,  31.25  ll)s.  of  hay,  containing  27.2  lbs.  of 
dry  matter,  and  could  apparently  have  eaten  more. 

Digestible  Nutrients. — The  following  table  ^  contains 

•Wolff:  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  VIIL,  I.  Supplement,  p.  113. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


411 


a  summary  of  the  more  important  Holienlieim  experi- 
ments, showing  the  amount  of  nutrients  digested  per  day 
and  their  effect  on  the  live-weight.  The  amount  of  work 
performed  is  given  in  kilogramme-metres;  an  ordinary 
day's  work  is  estimated  at  about  1,500,000  kilogramme- 
ipetres. 

Light  Work. 


Length 

experi- 
ment. 
Days. 

Live- 
weight. 
Lbs. 

Dry 

fodder 

per  day. 

Lbs. 

Digested  per  Day. 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 
1: 

Change 

Work 
f)er  day. 
Kilogr.- 
metres. 

Pro- 
tein. 
Lbs. 

Fat. 
Lbs. 

Carbhy- 

drates. 
Lbs. 

Total 
nu- 
trients. 
Lbs. 

in  live- 
weight 
per  day. 
Lbs. 

475,000 
475,000 
600,000 
600,000 
600,000 
600,000 
600,000 
600,000 

62 
28 
14 
14 
56 
25 
30 
39 

1,078 
1,157 
1,197 
1,151 
1,093 
1,034 
1,065 
1,146 

18.6 
24.0 
18.5 
16.7 
21.3 
24.7 
25.0 
24.9 

1.3 
L8 
1.4 
2.0 
3.1 
4.0 
3.3 
2.2 

0.4 
0.4 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.4 

7.9 

10.5 

7.2 

6.7 

8.8 

10.9 

12.3 

13.4 

9.6 
12.7 

8.7 
8.8 
12.0 
15.0 
15.8 
16.0 

6.9 
6.4 
5.6 
3.4 
3.0 
2.8 
3.9 
6.5 

-1.0 

0 
-2.0 
-3.3 

0 
+1.1 
+1.0 
+2.1 

Ordinary  Work, 


1,108,000 

40 

1,120 

24.0 

1.8 

0.4 

10.8 

13.0 

6.7 

-1.4 

1,800,000 

30 

1,010 

21.4 

3.0 

0.1 

8.7 

11.8 

3.0 

-2.8 

The  experiments  in  which  only  light  work  was  per- 
formed are  tolerably  numerous,  and  agree  well  with  each 
other,  although  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  they  were 
executed  at  different  times,  and  that  the  bodily  condition 
of  the  animal  varied  considerably.  As  their  general  result, 
we  mav  sav  that  a  ration  containino:  12  to  13  lbs.  of  dis^est- 
ible  nutrients,  and  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  about  1:  6.5, 


412 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


is  sufficient  for  a  horse  weighing  about  1,200  pounds  and 
performing  only  light  work.  All  the  experiments  in  which 
the  total  quantity  of  digested  matter  falls  below  this  amount 
show  a  loss  of  weight,  while  those  in  which  it  is  exceeded 
show  a  gain.  It  would  seem,  fYom  the  fifth  experiment, 
that  the  nutritive  ratio  may  safely  be  made  considerably 
narrower  than  that  given  above ;  but  such  a  change  Avould 
only  increase  the  cost  of  the  feeding  without  producing  an 
essentially  better  result. 

The  few  experiments  in  which  the  amount  of  work  was 
increased  to  an  ordinary  day's  work,  or  somewhat  beyond, 
only  show  the  insufficiency  of  the  above  mentioned  ration, 
but  give  us  no  information  as  to  the  amount  by  which  it 
should  be  increased.  It  is  noticeable  that  in  these  experi- 
ments the  loss  of  weight  was  less  on  a  wide  nutritive  ratio ; 
at  the  same  time,  however,  the  total  amount  of  digested 
matters  was  somewhat  greater,  though  that  of  the  protein 
was  much  less. 

Feeding  Standards. — The  following  table  contains  the 
above  feeding  standard,  calculated  per  1,000  pounds  live- 
weight,  and  also  the  standards  recommended  by  Wolff  for 
ordinary  and  for  heavy  work  : 


Feeding  Standards,— Horses. 
Per  Day  and  1,000  Pounds  Live- Weight. 


Total 

dry 

matter. 

Lbs. 

Digestible. 

Nutritive 

Protein. 
Lbs. 

Carbhydrates. 
Lbs. 

Fat. 
Lbs. 

ratio, 
1  : 

For  light  work 

"    ordinary  work. 
"    heavy  work.  .. 

21.0 

22.5 
25.5 

1.5 

1.8 
2.8 

9.1 
11.2 
13.4 

0.3 
0.6 

0.8 

G.5 

7.0 
5.5 

MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  413 

The  desirability  of  the  more  highly  nitrogenous  diet 
here  recommended  for  heavily  worked  horses  is  indicated 
by  practical  experience. 

Importance  of  Fat. — What  has  been  said  in  regard  to 
tlie  importance  of  fat  in  the  food  of  working  animals  is 
especially  applicable  to  the  horse,  and  it  can  hardly  be  a 
matter  of  chance  that  the  oat,  which  is  regarded  as  the 
natm-al  food  of  the  horse,  is  distinguished  from  other  ce- 
reals by  its  richness  in  fat.  This  fact  must  be  borne  in 
mind  in  attempting  to  replace  the  latter,  either  partially 
or  wholly,  by  other  feeding-stuffs. 

The  carbhydrates  can,  it  is  true,  take  the  place  of  fat  to 
a  certain  extent ;  but  it  may  be  questioned  whether  they 
always  suffice,  and  in  any  case  the  fat  of  the  food  must 
add  to  the  supply  of  respiratory  materials,  and  thus  be  of 
value,  especially  in  severe  work. 

Kinds  of  Feeding-stuffs.— The  feed  of  the  horse  ordi- 
narily consists,  as  already  said,  of  hay  and  oats,  though 
various  attempts  have  been  made,  with  more  or  less  suc- 
cess, to  replace  the  latter  by  other  feeding-stuffs. 

Exclusive  hay-feeding  is  still  less  adapted  to  horses  than 
to  ruminants,  since,  as  we  have  seen,  the  amount  which 
the  former  can  eat  is  comparatively  small,  amounting  to 
barely  23  pounds  per  day  and  1,000  pounds  live-weight, 
and  containing  20  pounds  of  dry  matter.  Hence  the  ne- 
cessity of  adding  some  concentrated  food  like  oats  to  the 
hay  becomes  self-evident,  and  is  rendered  even  more  so 
when  we  consider  that  the  digestive  power  of  the  horse 
for  certain  ingredients  of  coarse  fodder,  notably  crude 
fibre,  falls  below  that  of  ruminants. 


CHAPTER  y. 

PRODUCTION  OF  MILK. 

^  1.  The  Milk-Glands  and  Their  Functions. 

Milk  is  not  simply  a  Secretion. — In  order  to  an  un- 
derstanding of  the  influence  of  tlie  fodder  upon  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk,  it  is  important  to  gain 
a  clear  conception  of  the  mode  of  formation  of  the 
latter. 

The  milk  is  not  simply  secreted  from  the  blood,  like  the 
urine  in  the  kidneys,  or  the  digestive  j  uices  in  the  stomach 
and  intestines,  but  is  formed  in  the  milk-glands  from  the 
cells  of  the  gland  itself;  it  is  the  liquefled  organ.  This  is 
shown  even  by  the  composition  of  its  ash,  which,  like  that 
of  all  tissues,  contains  much  potash  and  phosphate  of  lime, 
while  the  fluids  of  the  animal  body  are  poor  in  these  sub- 
stances and  rich  in  chloride  of  sodium  ;  the  ash  of  milk 
contains  three  to  five  times  as  much  potash  as  soda,  while 
the  ash  of  blood,  on  the  other  hand,  contains  three  to  five 
times  as  much  soda  as  potash.  Were  the  milk  simply  a 
transudate  from  the  blood,  it  would  have  a  similar  compo- 
sition, and  could  not  serve  as  the  exclusive  food  of  the 
young  animal,  since  it  would  not  contain  all  the  elements 
necessary  for  growth ;  but  since  it  is  a  liquefied  organ,  it 
is  exactly  adapted  to  build  up  other  organs. 

Structure  of  the  Milk-Glands. — The  milk-gland  is 
composed  of  iiuuibcrless  small  Ncsicles,  like  those  repre- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING. 


415 


sented  in  Fig.  8. 


Fig.  8.— Lobule  of  Milk-gland. 


They  consist  of  a  tliin,  structureless 
membrane,  a^  lined  with  epithelial 
cells,  h.  From  three  to  eight  of 
these  vesicles  are  grouped  together 
and  surrounded  by  connective  tissue, 
cZ,  forming  a  lobule  which  has  a  com- 
mon outlet,  6',  for  all  the  vesicles. 
Several  of  these  lobules,  again,  are 
united  into  a  lobe,  also  surrounded 
by  connective  tissue,  and  having  a 
common  outlet,  which  empties  into 
the  milk-cistern. 
The  udder  of  the  cow  consists  of  a  right  and  left  half, 
each  composed  of  numerous  lobes  surrounded  by  connec- 
tive tissue.  The  two  halves  are  separated  from  each  other 
by  a  partition  of  connective  tissue,  and  the  wdiole  is  cov- 
ered with  more  or  less  abundant  fat- tissue,  upon  which  fol- 
lows  the  skin. 


Considerable  fat 
is  also  found  in 
the  interior  of 
the  organ,  and 
its  amount  may 
sometimes  be  so 
great  that,  in 
spite  of  an  enor- 
mously large  ud- 
der, there  is  only 
a  small  quantity 
of  real  glandu- 
lar tissue,  and 
the  yield  of  milk  is  correspondingly  scanty.  In  Fig.  9,  a 
represents  the  mass  of  lobes ;  h  shows  several  of  the  outlets 


Fig.  9.— (Wilckens.)    Section  of  a  Cow's  Udder. 


416  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

of  the  lobes  cut  obliquely ;  d  is  the  teat ;  e  the  milk- 
cistern,  into  which  all  the  lobes  empty ;  and  f  the  outlet  of 
the  teat. 

The  vesicles  above  described  are  covered  with  a  net- work 
of  fine  blood  and  lymph  vessels,  botli  of  which  are  very 
fully  developed  in  the  udder.  Each  half  of  the  udder  has 
usually  two,  more  seldom  three,  teats. 

Formation  of  the  Milk. — The  space  in  the  vesicles  of 
the  milk-gland  contains  originally  only  a  small  quantity  of 
a  yellowish  mucus,  but  when  conception  takes  place  the 
cells  begin  to  enlarge  and  to  fill  with  fat-globules.  At  the 
same  time  new  cells  are  formed,  and  the  old  ones  are 
pushed  forward  and  fill  the  vesicle,  and,  toward  the  end  of 
pregnancy,  even  reach  the  large  milk-ducts  and  the  milk- 
cistern,  partly  separating  from  each  other  in  the  process. 
When  birth  takes  place  the  cell-building  in  the  vesicles 
becomes  more  rapid,  and  is  somewhat  altered  in  character. 
The  previous  secretions  are  the  first  to  appear,  forming  the 
colostrmn,  which  is  followed  in  three  or  four  days  by  the 
true  milk. 

The  colostrum  is  a  thick,  yellowish  fluid,  rich  in  albimiin 
and  salts,  but  containing  little  casein,  and  characterized  by 
the  presence  of  round  bodies,  which  are  simply  whole  cells 
from  the  interior  of  the  vesicles.  The  colostrum  contains 
also  a  large  number  of  the  milk-globules  shortly  to  be 
described. 

In  the  production  of  the  true  milk,  which  soon  follows 
the  colostrum,  a  rapid  formation  of  new  cells  takes  place 
in  the  vesicles,  these  cells  become  completely  filled  with 
fat-globules,  and  then  break  up  entirely,  setting  free  these 
globules,  which  float  in  the  fluid  which  is  secreted  at  the 
same  time,  and  form  milk-globules.  This  process  takes 
place  much  more  rapidly  than  in  the  case  of  the  colostrum. 


MAITUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  417 

being  wholly  completed  in  tlie  glands,  so  tliat  the  resulting 
milk  shows  no  trace  of  the  process,  but  appears  like  a 
homogeneous  fluid. 

Composition  of  Milk.— Under  the  microscope,  milk  is 
seen  to  consist  of  a  fluid,  in  which  are  suspended  the  above 
mentioned  milk-globules,  which  render  the  fluid  opaque. 
On  standing,  these  milk-globules  rise  to  the  surface  and 
form  the  cream,  while  the  liquid  portion,  more  or  less  free 
from  the  fat-globules,  forms  skimmed  milk. 

It  is  in  the  composition  of  the  fluid  portion  that  milk 
shows  most  plainly  that  it  is  not  simply  a  filtrate  from  the 
blood.  It  contains — in  the  case  of  the  cow,  e.  g. — from 
two  to  five  per  cent,  of  protein  ;  but  while  the  protein  of 
the  blood  exists  as  albumin  or  fibrin,  only  a  very  small 
part  of  the  protein  of  milk  consists  of  albumin,  most  of  it 
existing  as  casein  (see  p.  17),  a  substance  not  found  else- 
where in  the  body.  A  small  amount  of  peptones  is  also 
found  in  milk. 

Moreover,  milk  contains,  in  addition  to  the  casein,  from 
three  to  five  per  cent,  of  a  peculiar  sugar — milk-sugar,  or 
lactose — which  also  has  never  yet  been  met  with  elsewhere 
in  the  organism.  These  two  substances,  together  with  the 
composition  of  its  ash,  stamp  milk  with  a  peculiar  charac- 
ter, and  are  sufiicient  of  themselves  to  show  that  it  is  not 
a  secretion  in  the  common  sense  of  the  word. 

The  milk-globules  have  given  rise  to  much  discussion. 
They  consist  essentially  of  a  mixture  of  several  fats,  which, 
when  separated  from  the  milk  or  cream  by  churning,  con- 
stitute butter. 

The  milk -globules  are  generally  described  as  surrounded 

by  a  membrane  consisting  of    some  variety  of  protein. 

This  membrane  is  not  visible  under  the  microscope,  but 

several  facts  have  been  brought  forward  as  proofs  of  its 

18* 


418  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

existence.  Many  eminent  authorities,  however,  dissent 
fi'om  this  view,  and  interpret  the  facts  differently.  The 
point  is  still  an  undecided  one,  and  it  will  therefore  suffice 
for  our  present  purpose  to  have  indicated  the  divergence 
of  views  upon  it. 

Sources  of  the  Ingredients  of  Milk. — The  albumin- 
oids of  milk  are  obviously  derived  from  the  albuminoids 
of  the  food  or  of  the  body.  The  albumin  of  milk  seems 
to  be  identical  with  that  of  the  sei'um  of  the  blood,  but 
the  casein,  as  already  noted,  is  not  found  in  the  body,  but 
is  a  product  of  the  action  of  the  cells  of  the  milk-gland. 

The  fat  of  the  milk  appears  to  be  also  formed  from 
albuminoids.  This  is  shown  both  by  microscopic  examin- 
ation and  by  other  facts.  By  means  of  the  microscope, 
the  formation  of  fat-globules  in  the  epithelial  cells  of  the 
gland  may  be  seen.  Moreover,  experiments  have  shown 
that  carnivorous  animals,  on  a  purely  meat  diet,  pro- 
duce normal  milk,  thus  proving  that  milk-fat  may  be 
formed  from  albuminoids,  and  have  also  shown  that  the 
greatest  quantity  of  fat  is  generally  produced  on  a  ration 
rich  in  protein.  Experiments  on  herbivorous  animals,  to 
which  reference  has  already  been  made  (pp.  IT-J— iTf)), 
have  shown  no  necessity  for  the  assumption  of  a  formation 
of  milk-fat  from  carbhydrates. 

The  tnilk-siigar  may  also  be  formed  from  protein  or  fat, 
as  the  above-mentioned  experiments  on  carnivorous  ani- 
mals show.  In  the  case  of  herbivorous  animals,  however, 
it  is  probable  that  a  part  of  it  at  least  is  derived  from  the 
carbhydrates  of  the  food. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  419 

^2.  The  Quantity  of  MmK. 

Fodder  of  Secondary  Importance.  —It  is  apparent  at 
once,  from  tlie  preceding  section,  that  the  quantity  and 
qnality  of  milk  must  be  determined  in  the  first  place  by 
the  development  of  the  milk-glands,  and  it  is,  indeed,  per- 
fectly well  known  that,  with  exactly  the  same  fodder,  one 
cow  w^ill  give  little  and  another  much  milk. 

A  poorly  developed  milk-gland  cannot  be  stimulated  to 
great  production  even  by  the  richest  food,  and  hence,  in 
milk  production,  much  depends  on  the  choice  of  suitable 
animals.  It  is  not,  however,  the  size  of  the  gland  alone 
which  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  but  also  its  quality — 
its  capability  for  rapid  cell-building  in  the  vesicles,  which, 
as  we  have  seen,  is  the  essential  part  of  the  production  of 
milk— and  its  ability  to  yield  the  desired  quality  of  milk. 

Such  being  the  case,  the  food  supply  can  have  but  a 
secondary  importance  ;  at  the  same  time,  the  production  of 
milk,  like  every  other  function  of  the  body,  demands  a 
certain  supply  of  food  for  its  normal  performance,  and  it 
is  easy  to  see  that  the  latter  must  exert  a  very  considerable 
influence,  at  least  on  the  quantity  of  the  milk. 

Period  of  Lactation.— Another  factor  having  an  im- 
portant influence  on  the  quantity  of  milk  produced  is  the 
period  of  lactation.  In  the  same  animal,  and  with  uni- 
form feeding,  the  greatest  yield  of  milk  is  generally  ob- 
tained shortly  after  calving.  At  that  time  the  milk-gland 
reaches  its  greatest  development,  and  consequently  pro- 
duces the  most  milk,  while  subsequently  it  retrogrades, 
and  the  flow  of  milk  decreases  correspondingly. 

This  gradual  diminution  in  the  daily  yield  of  milk  is  to 
a  degree  independent  of  the  fodder,  although  its  rapidity 
can  be  influenced  by  the  latter.     Consequently,  it  is  desir- 


490  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDINa. 

able,  in  investigations  on  milk  production,  to  introduce  at 
the  end  of  each  series  of  experiments  a  period  in  which 
the  fodder  is  the  same  as  in  the  first  period,  in  order  to  be 
able  to  take  account  of  the  extent  of  this  diminution. 

The  Supply  of  Protein. — The  formation  of  milk  con- 
sists essentially  in  a  rapid  growth  of  new  cells  in  the  milk- 
glands.  These  cells  consist  largely  of  protein,  and  we 
should  therefore  expect  their  formation  to  be  more  or  less 
dependent  on  the  supply  of  protein  in  the  food.  More- 
over, not  only  the  protein  of  the  milk,  but  also  its  fat,  and 
perhaps  part  of  its  sugar,  appear  to  be  formed  from  albu- 
minoids, and  thus  a  further  necessity  for  an  abundant  sup- 
ply of  these  substances  arises. 

In  fact,  all  experiments  agree  in  showing  that  the  great- 
est yield  of  milk  is  obtained  with  a  fodder  rich  in  protein. 
The  size  and  quality  of  the  milk-gland,  it  is  true,  deter- 
mine the  maximum  amount  of  milk  that  can  be  formed, 
but  this  maximum  can  be  reached  only  by  means  of  a  lib- 
eral supply  of  protein. 

Another  effect  of  protein,  which  shows  itself  in  all  ex- 
periments, is  to  augment  the  percentage  of  solid  matter  in 
the  milk — i.  e,,  to  make  it  less  watery.  Since,  now,  the 
amount  of  real  production  which  takes  place,  as  well  as 
the  true  value  of  the  milk,  is  measured  by  the  amount  of 
solid  matter  in  the  latter,  it  is  evident  that  we  must  reduce 
the  quantities  of  milk  produced  in  any  experiment  to  a 
uniform  water-content  before  we  can  properly  compare 
them.  The  basis  usually  adopted  is  88  per  cent,  water 
and  12  per  cent,  solid  matter,  and  from  the  actual  quantity 
of  milk  produced  is  calculated  the  quantity  which  would 
have  been  produced  had  the  amount  of  solid  matter 
present  been  contained  in  milk  having  88  per  cent,  of 
water. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


421 


Exjperiments  Inj  Wolff. — Some  experiments  by  Wolff, '^^ 
in  1868,  thongli  imperfect  in  some  particulars,  illustrate 
the  influence  of  the  protein  of  the  fodder  on  the  quantity 
of  the  milk. 

In  the  first  and  last  periods  the  fodder  was  the  same, 
and  from  the  difference  in  the  yield  of  milk  it  was  calcu- 
lated that  the  average  decrease  per  day  due  to  the  progress 
of  lactation  w^as  0.0231:  lb.  The  amount  of  non-nitroo:e- 
nous  matter  in  the  fodder  was  practically  the  same  in  all  the 
periods,  only  that  of  the  protein  being  varied.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  amount  of  crude  protein  fed  per 
day,  the  yield  of  milk  per  day,  its  percentage  of  dry  mat- 
ter, the  yield  of  milk  reduced  to  a  uniform  water-content 
of  88  per  cent.,  and  the  amount  which  would  have  been 
yielded  had  the  fodder  remained  the  same  as  in  tlie  first 
and  last  periods : 


Period. 

Crude 
protein 

fed. 

Lbs. 

Yield 

of 
milk. 
Lbs. 

Dry 
matter  of 

milk. 
Per  cent. 

Milk  with  88  per  cent. 
Water. 

Found. 
Lbs. 

Calculated. 
Lbs. 

1 

2.52 
3.18 
3.86 
4.17 
3.34 
3.73 
4.15 
4.50 
2.95 

19.8 

19.9 
20.0 
19.7 
18.5 
18.3 
18.3 
18.2 
17.1 

11.38 
11.43 
11.46 
11.61 
11.71 

11.50 

11.88 
11.84 

18.8 

18.9 

19.1 
18.9 
18.0 

17.5 
17.9 
16.8 

18  8 

2 

18  5 

3 

18  3 

4 

18  0 

5 

17  8 

6 

7 

17  4 

8 

17  1 

9 

16  8 

Emiihrung  Landw.  Nutzthiere,"  p.  503. 


422  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

In  general,  the  percentage  of  dry  matter  in  the  milk 
was  increased  by  the  large  proportion  of  protein,  wliile 
the  quantity  of  milk  (reduced  to  a  uniform  water-content) 
is  in  every  case  greater  than  the  calculated  amount. 

Exjpey^hnents  hy  G.  Kulin. — Yery  extensive  experiments 
upon  the  influence  of  the  food  on  the  production  of  milk 
have  been  made  by  Gustav  Kiihn,  at  the  Mockern  Ex- 
periment Station."^  The  following  selection  from  his 
results  will  serve  ta  illustrate  the  influence  of  a  ration  rich 
in  albuminoids  upon  the  quantity  of  milk. 

The  experiment  was  made  on  two  cows,  and  was  divided 
into  four  periods.  In  the  first  period  each  cow  received  a 
so-called  normal  fodder,  which  was  poor  iii  protein  and 
consisted,  per  day,  of 

16.5  lbs.  of  hay. 
3.3      "       barley  straw. 
38.5      "       mangolds. 

In  the  second  period  this  ration  was  improved  by  the 
addition  of  ^.^  lbs.  of  palm-nut  meal,  which  was  replaced 
in  the  third  period  by  an  equal  amount  of  beans.  In  the 
fourth  period  each  cow  received  27.5  lbs.  of  hay,  and 
in  the  case  of  cow  No.  I.  a  fifth  period  was  added,  in 
which  the  fodder  consisted  of  27.5  lbs.  of  hay  and  ^.^ 
lbs.  of  palm-nut  meal.  The  digestibility  of  the  fodder 
was  not  determined  in  these  experiments,  but  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  highly  nitrogenous  bye-fodders  used  must 
have  largely  increased  the  proportion  of  protein  in  the 
ration. 

The  several  periods  extended  over  from  three  to  nearly 
seven  weeks,  during  which  time  the  fodder  was  accurately 

♦  Jour.  f.  Landw.,  1874  to  1877. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


423 


weighed  out,  tlie  yield  of  milk  weighed,  and  almost  daily 
analyses  of  it  made. 

The  results  were  in  nearly  all  respects  the  same  with 
each  animal,  and  hence  only  those  obtained  with  cow  Xo. 
I.  are  given  here.  The  following  table  ''''  shows  the  average 
amount  of  milk  given  per  day  in  the  several  periods  (in- 
cluding the  prelinjinary  feeding)  under  the  influence  of  the 
varying  fodder: 


Length 

Period. 

of 
period. t 

Days. 

1 

35 

2 

47 

3 

26 

4 

21 

5 

21 

Fodder. 


".Normal  fodder." 

Same  +6.6  lbs.  palm-nut  meal 

"     +6.6  *'   beans. 
27.5  lbs.  hay. 
Same  +6.6  lbs.  palm-nut  meal 


Milk 

per  day. 

Lbs. 


26.36 
28.25 
29.39 
22.86 
23.54 


Dry 
matter  of 

milk. 
Per  cent. 


10.93 
11.72 
11.33 
10.88 
11.17 


Milk  with 

88  per 

cent. 

water. 

Lbs. 


24.02 
27.59 
27.76 
20.72 
21.91 


In  these  experiments  the  natural  decrease  in  the  flow  of 
milk  with  advancing  lactation  is  not  taken  into  account,  it 
having  been  found,  in  previous  experiments  on  the  same 
animal,  to  be  very  small. 

The  increased  yield  of  milk,  under  the  influence  of  the 
more  nitrogenous  fodder  of  periods  2,  3,  and  5,  is  very 
marked,  whether  we  consider  the  actual  yield  of  milk  or 
reduce  it  to  a  uniform  water-content.  The  increase  in  the 
percentage  of  dry  matter  in  the  milk  is  equally  evident. 

These  results  show  plainly  that  a  liberal  supply  of  pro- 
tein in  the  food  favors  an  abundant  production  of  vailk  ; 


*  Jour.  f.   Landw.,  1876,  p.  190,  and  1877,  p.  334. 
I  Including  the  preliminary  feeding. 


424  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

and  this  conclusion  is  confirmed  by  a  large  number  of  other 
investigations. 

Effect  of  Fodder  in  Maintaining  the  Flow  of  Milk. 

— In  the  second  and  third  periods  of  the  above  series,  ex- 
tending together  over  nearly  two  and  one-half  months,  it 
was  observed  that  the  larger  yield  of  milk  caused  by  the 
richer  food  showed  itself  at  once,  and  continued  without 
very  much  alteration  till  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  pe- 
riod. Indeed,  the  yield  was  somewhat  greater  during  the 
last  part  of  the  thii'd  period  than  during  the  iii'st  part  of 
the  second  period. 

This  illustrates  a  fact  which  has  been  frequently  ob- 
served, viz. :  that  a  rich  fodder  can  render  the  natural  de- 
pression due  to  the  progress  of  lactation  veiy  small,  and 
ensure  a  nearly  constant  flow  of  milk  for  a  considerable 
time.  Evidently  this  is  no  small  gain,  and  one  which  be- 
comes more  manifest  fi*om  day  to  day. 

In  the  fourth  period,  in  which  the  animal  was  fed  on 
hay  exclusively,  a  rapid  diminution  in  the  flow  of  milk 
was  observed,  evidently  due  to  the  poorer  fodder.  Li  the 
fifth  period  the  fodder  was  improved,  and  rendered  about 
equal  in  quality  to  that  fed  in  the  second  and  third  peri- 
ods. As  a  result,  we  have  an  increased  secretion  of  milk, 
but  neither  on  the  average  nor  on  any  single  day  was 
the  quantity  nearly  as  great  as  before  on  a  similar  fod- 
der. 

We  thus  see  that,  while  a  good  flow  of  milk  may  be 
maintained  for  a  long  time  by  means  of  a  suitable  fodder, 
it  falls  rapidly  when  the  fodder  is  made  poorer,  and  that 
when  it  has  thus  fallen  it  does  not  increase  again  to  the 
former  amount  on  a  return  to  the  old  fodder.  In  this  case 
three  weeks  of  hay  feeding  sufiiced  to  diminish  the  aver- 
age daily  yield  of  milk  by  about  five  pounds. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  425 

'  Milk  Production  with  Insufficient  Protein. — A  fod- 
,  der  somewhat  less  ricli  in  protein  tlian  that  nsually  con- 
sidered necessary  will,  it  is  trne,  if  agreeable  to  the  ani- 
mals, often  produce  a  large  flow  of  milk.  The  energy  of 
production  is  so  great  in  good  milk  cows  that  it  continues 
for  a  time  unaltered,  even  when  the  fodder  does  not  supply 
sufficient  materials.  The  deficiency  is  then  supplied  from 
the  body  of  the  animal,  and  the  latter  loses  flesh  and  fat. 

This  may  be  admissible  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  early 
part  of  lactation,  since,  as  the  amount  of  milk  gradually 
decreases,  the  drafts  on  the  materials  of  the  body  cease, 
and  the  latter,  if  the  fodder  be  tolerably  rich,  may  regain 
what  it  previously  lost.  At  the  same  time  the  deficiency 
must  not  be  too  great,  since  then,  as  we  have  just  seen,  a 
rapid  decrease  in  the  flow  of  milk  takes  place,  and  the 
cows  are  liable  to  come  into  a  condition  in  which  even  rich 
feeding  will  not  produce  much  milk. 

Effect  of  Fat. — An  increase  of  the  fat  of  a  ration  seems 
to  produce  but  little  effect  upon  the  milk  production.  The 
only  conclusion  that  can  be  drawn  from  the  experiments  as 
yet  made  is  that  it  does  not  increase  at  all  the  percentage 
of  fat  in  the  milk,  but  may  slightly  increase  the  quantity 
of  the  milk,  probably  because  the  fat  protects  some  of  the 
protein  of  the  food  from  oxidation,  and  thus,  by  putting 
more  material  at  the  disposal  of  the  milk- glands,  causes  an 
increased  production  of  all  the  ingredients  of  the  milk, 
and  not  simply  of  fat. 

For  example,  in  experiments  by  Wolff,*  the  addition  of 
a  pound  of  fat  (at  first  rape-seed  oil,  afterward  linseed  oil) 
per  head  to  a  very  scanty  fodder  which  had  caused  a  rapid 
decrease  in  the  flow  of  milk  increased  the  flow  only  for 

*  Log.  cit.,  p.  506. 


426  MAT^UAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

the  first  few  days.  On  the  average  of  the  whole  period  of 
feeding  ahnost  no  gain  was  obtained,  and  the  percentage 
of  fat  in  the  milk  actually  decreased  a  little,  as  did  also 
that  of  the  total  solid  matter. 

In  a  similar  experiment  by  G.  Kiihn,  with  a  compara- 
tively rich  fodder,  it  was  found  that  the  addition  of  a 
pound  of  rape-seed  oil  per  day  and  head  caused  a  small 
increase  (about  one  pound  per  day)  in  the  daily  milk  pro- 
duction, while  the  percentage  of  fat  remained  unaltered. 

§  3.  The  QuALrrY  of  the  Milk. 

By  the  quality  of  milk  and  its  products  is  frequently 
meant  those  properties,  like  taste,  color,  etc.,  which  render 
them  more  or  less  agreeable  as  food.  These  properties  we 
shall  not  consider  here  to  any  extent,  because,  although  of 
importance,  and  though  they  are  affected  by  the  feeding, 
the  chemical  changes  which  produce  them  are  so  slight  as 
largely  to  escape  observation,  and  because  their  causes  are 
not  yet  well  ascertained. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  changes  in  the  proportions  of 
water,  casein,  albumin,  etc.,  which  may  take  place  in  the 
milk,  are  also  changes  in  the  quality  of  the  latter,  and  to 
the  quality  of  the  milk  in  this  sense  we  shall  here  devote 
most  of  our  attention. 

Individual  Peculiarities  of  Animals. — The  quality  of 
milk  is  stilll  less  dependent  on  the  fodder  than  the  quantity. 

By  far  the  most  important  factors  determining  the  qual- 
ity are  the  breed  and  individual  peculiarities  of  the  animal, 
especially  as  regards  the  properties  of  the  milk-glands. 
The  best  and  most  abundant  feeding  is  incapable  of  alter- 
ing a  "  cheese  breed  "  into  a  "  butter  breed,"  or  vice  versa. 
This  can  be  accomplished,  if  at  all,  only  by  continued  and 
intelligent  breeding  with  this  end  in  view,  and  not  by  a 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  427 

simple  alteration  of  fodder.  At  the  same  time  the  fodder 
can  affect  the  quality  of  the  milk  to  some  extent. 

Influence  of  Fodder  on  Percentage  of  Dry  Matter. 
— As  already  noted,  the  percentage  of  total  dry  matter  in 
milk  may  be  considerably  increased  by  rich  feeding.  This 
is  shown  both  in  Wolff's  and  Kiihn's  experiments  (pp.  421 
and  423),  and  has  been  fully  confirmed  in  many  other  inves- 
tigations. In  Wolff's  experiments  the  addition  to  the  fod- 
der was  solely  protein.  In  Kiihn's  experiments  both  protein 
and  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  were  added,  but  since  other 
experiments  have  shown  that  the  addition  of  non-nitrogen- 
ous nutrients  to  a  ration  does  not  affect  essentially  either  the 
quantity  or  quality  of  the  milk,  we  must  conclude  that  in 
this  case  also  it  was  the  additional  jjrotein  which  caused 
the  gain. 

The  increase  in  the  proportion  of  dry  matter  in  the  milk 
probably  explains  the  common  observation  that  it  is  possi- 
ble to  increase  the  yield  of  butter,  e.  ^.,  fi'om  a  given 
amount  of  milk  by  means  of  proper  feeding,  although,  as 
we  shall  see,  the  fodder  does  not  usually  alter  the  propor- 
tion of  fat  in  the  dry  matter  of  the  milk. 

Influence  of  Fodder  on  Composition  of  Dry  Matter. 
— In  considering  the  influence  of  the  fodder  on  the  com- 
position of  the  dry  matter  of  milk  there  are  certain  facts 
that  must  be  taken  account  of. 

It  is  a  well-ascertained  fact  that  the  quality  of  milk,  par- 
ticularly its  proportion  of  fat,  varies  considerably  from  day 
to  day,  and  even  from  one  milking  to  another.  Moreover, 
such  variations  are  particularly  liable  to  take  place  after  a 
change  of  fodder.  As  a  consequence,  any  conclusions 
based  on  a  single  or  on  a  few^  analyses  of  milk,  especially 
if  executed  shortly  after  a  change  of  fodder,  have  abso- 
lutely no  value. 


428 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


These  changes  in  the  composition  of  the  dry  matter  of 
the  milk,  however,  mutually  compensate  each  other,  and 
the  average  composition  for  a  long  period  is  found  in  al- 
most all  cases  to  be  unaffected  by  the  fodder. 

For  example,  in  Kuhn's  experiments,  already  cited,  the 
quality  of  the  milk  was  determined  by  means  of  a  large 
number  of  analyses.  In  the  following  table  ^  is  given  the 
average  composition  of  the  milk  obtained  in  the  several 
periods  of  the  experiments  described  on  page  422,  both 
from  cow  No.  I.  and  also  from  I^o.  II.  The  milk,  in 
every  case,  has  been  reduced  to  a  uniform  water-content 
of  88  per  cent.,  thus  eliminating  the  influence  of  the  vary- 
ing percentage  of  water  in  the  natural  milk. 

Cow  I. 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

1 
2 
3 
4 


Length  of 
period. 
Days. 


35 

47 
26 
21 
21 


Dry  Matter 

of  fresh 

milk. 

Per  cent. 


10.93 
11.72 
11.33 
10.88 
11.17 


Milk  with  88  Peb  Cent.  Wateb. 


Fat. 
Per  cent. 


3.33 

3.81 
3.51 
3.46 
3.76 


Casein. 
Per  cent. 


2.25 
2.26 
2.38 
2.36 

2.38 


Albumin. 
Per  cent. 


0.25 
0.24 
0.26 
0.23 
0.24 


Sugar. 
Per  cent. 


5.08 
4.76 
5.03 
5.27 
5.08 


Cow  IL 


31 

10.37 

3.44 

2.24 

0.30 

41 

10.80 

3.44 

2.40 

0.31 

27 

10.55 

3.15 

2.47 

0.35 

21 

10.50 

3.30 

2.48 

0.31 

4.98 
4.69 
5.10 
5.16 


♦  Log.  cit.,  1877,  pp.  334  and  352. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  429 

When  calculated  to  a  uniform  water- content,  the  propor- 
tions of  the  several  ingredients  of  the  milk  are  practically 
the  same,  whatever  the  fodder.  The  same  result  has  been 
obtained  in  many  other  experiments,  in  which  the  varia- 
tions of  the  fodder  were  very  great.  The  quantity  of  the 
milk  and  the  percentage  of  dry  matter  varied,  but  the  rela- 
tive quantities  of  the  several  solid  ingi-edients  remained 
very  constant. 

One  exception  to  this,  however,  appears  in  the  above 
experiments.  In  periods  2  and  5,  in  which  palm-nut  meal 
was  fed,  the  milk  of  Cow  I.  showed  a  noticeably  increased 
percentage  of  fat,  while  that  of  Cow  II.  was  not  affected  in 
this  way.  That  this  effect  was  not  caused  by  the  greater 
supply  of  protein  is  shown  by  the  facts  that  it  was  pro- 
duced in  only  one  animal,  and  that  it  did  not  show  itself  in 
period  3,  in  which  the  fodder  was  even  richer  in  protein 
than  in  period  2.  That  it  was  not  due  to  the  fat  of  the 
palm-nut  meal  follows  from  the  fact  that,  in  other  experi- 
ments, the  addition  of  fat  to  the  fodder  has  had  no  such 
effect. 

It  would  thus  appear  that  the  palm-nut  meal  exerted  a 
specific  effect  on  the  milk  production  of  this  cow.  In  later 
experiments,  the  effect  on  the  same  animal  was  confirmed, 
and  another  cow,  of  a  different  breed,  was  found  in  which 
the  same  result  was  produced. 

These  two  results  are  the  only  ones  of  the  kind  yet 
reached,  all  other  experiments  having  failed  to  show  any 
permanent  change  in  the  composition  of  the  dry  matter  of 
the  milk  as  a  result  of  change  of  feeding.  They  are  too 
few  to  justify  any  general  conclusion,  but  it  would  be 
highly  interesting  to  follow  up  the  hint  thus  given,  and 
to  test  various  fodders  and  different  annuals  in  this  re- 
spect. 


430  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Influence  of  Fodder  on  Quality  of  Butter. — Be- 
sides the  well-known  effect  of  certain  fodders  in  imparting 
an  undesirable  flavor  to  butter,  it  is  a  fact  of  common  ex- 
perience that  winter  butter  is  inferior  to  that  made  on  good 
pasturage.  These  differences  in  qualit}-,  however,  seem  to 
be  due  rather  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  minute  quan- 
tities of  coloring  and  flavoring  matters  than  to  any  recog- 
nizable change  in  the  chemical  composition  of  the  fat. 

Butter-fat  consists  essentially  of  a  mixture  of  stearin, 
palmitin,  and  olein,  and  it  is  sometimes  stated  that  when 
an  animal  is  kept  on  poor  fodder,  particularly  coarse  fod- 
der, the  proportion  of  the  solid  stearin  increases,  and  that 
of  the  softer  palmitin  and  olein  decreases. 

Some  recent  experiments  by  Weiske  ^  seem  to  indicate 
that  this  is  not  the  case.  They,  at  least,  failed  to  show 
any  alteration  in  the  composition  or  melting-point  of  the  fat 
of  goafs  milk  as  a  consequence  of  poor  or  good  feeding. 

Other  Conditions  Influencing  Quality  of  Milk.— 
Various  circumstances,  largely  independent  of  the  indi- 
viduality or  the  feeding  of  the  animal,  affect  the  quality 
of  the  milk,  especially  its  percentage  of  total  dry  matter. 
The  milk  of  a  large  milker  is  generally  more  "watery  than 
that  from  a  cow  which  produces  a  less  quantity.  AVith 
the  same  animal  the  percentage  of  total  dry  matter  in- 
creases with  the  time  that  has  elapsed  since  calving  ;  that 
is,  as  the  quantity  gradually  decreases,  the  milk  grows 
more  concentrated,  the  relative  quantity  of  casein  generally 
increasing  somewhat  at  the  same  time,  and  that  of  fat 
decreasing.  Similarly,  as  the  yield  of  milk  increases  from 
one  year  to  another  up  to  a  certain  age  of  the  animal,  the 
percentage  of  dry  matter  decreases. 

*  Jour.  f.  Landw.,  1878,  p.  447. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE- FEEDING.  431 

Even  the  milk  drawn  at  different  hours  of  the  day  from 
the  same  cow  is  by  no  means  always  of  the  same  quality. 
The  longer  the  time  from  one  milking  to  another,  the  more 
watery  is  the  milk ;  so  that  if  the  cows  are  milked  three 
times  daily,  the  morning  milk  is  more  watery  than  the 
noon  or  evening  milk. 

Still  more  striking  are  the  differences  observed  in  dif- 
ferent portions  of  milk  fi'om  the  same  milking.  The 
milk  which  is  first  drawn  from  the  udder  is  always  far 
more  watery  and  poorer  in  fat  than  the  last  portions 
drawn. 

These  circumstances,  of  course,  nmst  all  be  taken  into 
account,  and  the  possible  errors  arising  from  them  avoided 
in  any  experiments  upon  the  effect  of  feeding  on  the 
quality  of  the  milk.  This  can  only  be  done  by  extending 
the  observations  over  a  considerable  time,  and  making  a 
large  number  of  milk  analyses.  Results  based  on  but  a 
small  number  of  analyses,  or  covering  but  a  short  period, 
are  to  be  accepted  with  great  caution. 

^4,  The  Feeding  Standaed. 

The  Nutritive  Ratio. — All  experiments  on  milk  cows 
agree  in  showing  that  an  abundance  of  protein  in  the 
fodder  is  an  essential  condition  of  the  maximum  produc- 
tion of  milk.  This  implies  a  rather  narrow  nutritive 
ratio,. since  otherwise  the  quantity  of  pi-otein  in  the  amount 
of  fodder  which  could  be  eaten  would  be  too  small. 

It  is  true  that  a  large  supply  of  protein  and  a  narrow 
nutritive  ratio  tend  to  increase  the  protein  consumption  in 
the  body,  and  for  that  reason  the  nutritive  ratio  must  not 
be  made  too  narrow.  At  the  same  time,  there  is  less  fear 
of  this  effect  with  milking  animals  than  with  others,  be- 
cause much  of  the  protein  goes  to  sustain  the  activity  of 


432  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

the  milk-glands,  and  is  not  added  to  the  stock  of  circula- 
torj  protein. 

Organic  Nutrients. — The  following  feeding  standard, 
based  on  the  numerous  feeding  experiments  on  milk  cows 
already  made,  is  the  one  recommended  by  "Wolff : 

Feeding  Standard  for  Milk  Cows. — Per  Day  and  1,000  Pounds 
Live-Weigut. 

Digestible  protein 2.5  pounds. 

fat 0.4      " 

'*         carbhydrates 12.5       " 

Nutrifcive  ratio 1  :  5. 4 

Total  dry  matter '. .  24  pounds. 

These  quantities  correspond  to  the  feed  which  the  ani- 
mals would  obtain  on  good  pasturage.  If  thev  are  fed 
with  average  hay,  it  is  necessary  to  add  to  it  some  rather 
nitrogenous  and  easily  digestible  feeding-stuff,  in  order  to 
bring  the  ration  up  to  the  standard  and  ensure  an  abun- 
dant flow  of  milk. 

The  quantity  of  the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  may  be 
increased  beyond  the  amount  given  above,  if  the  fodder  at 
disposal  permit ;  but  such  an  increase  ^vill  hardly  be  of  any 
special  advantage  in  the  production  of  milk,  as  has  been 
shown  in  experiments  by  Kiihn  and  Stohmann. 

Variations  from  Feeding  Standard. — It  is  sufficiently 
e^^dent,  from  the  facts  concerning  milk  production  already 
presented,  and  from  the  considerations  advanced  in  the 
chapter  on  Feeding  Standards,  that  a  feeding  standard  like 
that  just  given  can  have  only  a  general  value,  and  that  the 
feeding  must  be  largely  influenced  by  the  individuality  of 
the  animal  and  by  the  amount  of  milk  which  it  is  desired 
to  produce. 

The  maximum  amount  of  milk  which  a  cow  can  produce 
is  determined  by  the  size  and  quality  of  her  milk-glands, 


MANtTAL   OP  CATTLE-FEEDING.  433 

and  the  richest  fodder  which   can  profitably  be  given  is 
that  which  just  suffices  to  ensure  that  maximum  yield. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  least  amount  of  fodder  which 
can  safely  be  given  is  that  which  maintains  a  moderate 
flow  of  milk  without  drawing  on  the  materials  of  the 
body. 

Between  these  two  limits  the  choice  of  fodder  will  be 
determined  largely  by  financial  considerations.  When 
fodder  is  expensive  and  the  price  of  milk  is  low,  a  poorer 
fodder  than  that  called  for  by  Wolff's  standard  might  be 
in  place,  such  as  would  result  from  decreasing  the  digest- 
ible protein  of  the  ration  while  leaving  the  amount  of 
digestible  carbhydrates  about  the  same.  If  oil  cake  were 
used,  the  change  might  be  efPected  very  simply  by  decreas- 
ing the  quantity  of  this  feeding-stuff.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  fodder  is  cheap  and  the  price  of  milk  is  high,  it  might 
be  desirable  to  feed  more  richly  than  is  indicated  by  the 
standard.  This  might  be  done  by  increasing  the  amount  of 
digestible  protein  by  the  addition  of  some  highly  nitroge- 
nous bye-fodder ;  but  the  amount  of  non-nitrogenous  nutri- 
ents should  be  somewhat  increased  at  the  same  time,  in 
order  that  the  nutritive  ratio  may  not  be  too  narrow. 

In  general,  a  given  increase  in  the  protein  of  the  fodder 
produces  a  less  effect  on  the  arnount  of  milk  the  nearer  we 
approach  to  the  maximum  yield  possible.  Thus,  if  the 
addition  of  a  pound  of  oil  cake  to  a  ration  causes  an  in- 
crease of  a  quart  per  day  in  the  amount  of  milk  obtained, 
the  addition  of  a  second  pound  will  cause  a  less  gain,  per- 
haps not  more  than  a  pint,  while  a  third  pound  might  cause 
hardly  any  gain.  Moreover,  the  individuality  of  the  ani- 
mal will  have  a  considerable  influence  on  the  return  ob- 
tained from  an  increase  of  the  fodder,  and  consequently  on 
the  determination  of  the  most  profitable  ration. 
19 


434  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDTNG. 

Inorganic  Nutrients. — A  few  words  iiii\y,  perhaps,  be 
added  in  regard  to  the  supply  of  inorganic  nutrients,  the 
importance  of  which  has  more  than  once  been  alhided  to. 
In  some  experiments  on  goats,  made  at  Proskau,  in  which 
the  fodder  contained  no  lime  or  phosphoric  acid,  the  quan- 
tity of  milk  decreased  rapidly,  and  the  animals  sickened,  and 
died  on  the  fifteenth  day.  It  has  also  been  observed  that 
animals  which  receive  no  inorganic  food,  but  an  abund- 
ance of  organic  nutrients,  die  more  quickly  than  those 
which  receive  no  food  at  all. 

As  regards  the  feeding  of  milk  cows,  however,  the 
matter  is  of  little  practical  importance,  since  the  ordinary 
fodders  contain  an  abundance  of  all  the  necessary  ingre- 
dients. 

According  to  the  "Weende  experiments  (p.  376)  the  daily 
maintenance  fodder  of  full-grown  oxen  contains  approxi- 
mately the  following  amounts  of  the  more  important  inor- 
ganic nutrients : 

Phosphoric  acid 0,05  lb. 

Lime 0.10  " 

Potash 0.20  " 


Adding  to  these  the  amounts  contained  in  an  average 
daily  yield  (say  20  lbs.)  of  milk,  viz. : 

Phosphoric  acid 0.04  lb. 

Lime 0.03  " 

Potash 0.04  " 

we  get  approximately  the  amount  required  by  milk  cows, 
viz. : 

Phosphoric  acid 0.09  lb. 

Lime 0.13  " 

Potash 0.24  '* 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  435 

These  quantities  are  more  than  supplied  by  any  ordinary 
ration,  and  only  in  case  of  almost  exclusive  feeding  with 
straw,  chaff,  and  roots  is  it,  perhaps,  advisable  to  add  a 
little  lime  to  the  fodder,  in  the  form  of  lixiviated  chalk  or 
fine  leached  ashes.  The  latter  should  be  sifted  before 
using.  Potash  is  always  present  in  more  than  sufficient 
quantity  in  all  vegetable  products. 

Connnon  salt  constitutes,  of  course,  an  exception  to  the 
above  remarks.  The  large  amount  of  potash  salts  in  the 
ordinary  fodder  of  milk  cows  causes  an  increased  excretion 
of  soda  salts  from  the  body  (see  p.  2-1:),  and  calls  for  a  sup- 
ply in  the  food.  Salt  also  increases  the  palatability  of  the 
fodder  and  stimulates  the  appetite,  a  point  the  importance 
of  which  has  already  been  alluded  to. 


CHAPTER  YI. 

FEEDING  GROWING  ANIMALS. 
2  1.  General  Laws  of  the  Nutrition  op  Young  Animals. 

That  there  are  great  differences  between  the  nutritive 
processes  in  mature  animals  and  those  taking  place  in 
young  individuals  is  evident  to  the  most  casual  observa- 
tion. While  in  the  former  case  the  food  consumed  is 
nearly  all  used  to  keep  up  the  vital  processes,  and,  under 
the  most  favorable  circumstances,  only  a  comparatively 
small  fraction  of  it  can  be  diverted  to  purposes  of  produc- 
tion, in  the  young  animal  a  large  portion  of  the  food  eaten 
is  directed  to  productive  purposes,  viz.,  the  growth  of  the 
muscles,  bones,  and  other  tissues. 

But  while  these  differences  have  been  recognized,  they 
have  not  yet  been  made  the  subject  of  much  scientific 
study,  and  hence  much  of  the  necessary  groundwork  of  a 
rational  feeding  of  young  animals  is  still  lacking,  and  we 
are  obliged  to  proceed  on  uncertain  deductions  from  our 
knowledge  of  the  nutritive  processes  in  mature  animals, 
combined  with  the  results  of  practical  experience. 

Among  the  few  accurate  experiments  on  this  subject  are 
those  of  Soxhlet,  in  Yienna,  upon  the  nutrition  of  young 
calves,*  and  this  section  is  based  essentially  on  his  results. 


*  Biedermaim's  Central-Blatt  fiir  Agr.  Chem.  Jahrg.  VII.,  748  and 
887. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  437 

Amount  of  Food  consumed. — Soxlilet's  experiments 
were  made  witli  three  young  calves  from  eight  to  thirty 
days  old,  fed  with  milk,  of  which  they  were  given  approxi- 
mately the  amounts  which  they  had  «been  found  to  consume 
in  preliminary  trials.  The  following  table  exhibits  the 
amount  of  the  several  nutrients  consumed  by  an  average 
animal  two  to  three  weeks  old  and  weighing  100  pounds, 
and  may  be  called  the  feeding-standard,  so  far  as  such  a 
standard  can  be  deduced  from  so  few  experiments.  The 
quantities  here  given  are,  without  doubt,  abundant. 

Consumption  per  Day  and  100  lbs.  Live-weight. 

Lbs. 

Fresh  milk 16.20 

Total  dry  matter 1.93 

Protein 0. 49 

Fat 0.47 

Carbhydrates  (milk-sugar) 0,84 

Ash : 0.13 

Nutritive  ratio 1  :  4. 0 

The  average  gain  of  weight  per  day  was  1.85  pound. 

In  regard  to  the  digestibility,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
milk  was  almost  completely  digested ;  only  about  2.3  per 
cent,  of  the  dry  matter  appeared  in  the  excrements,  so  that 
for  our  present  purposes  no  deduction  need  be  made  on 
this  account  from  the  above  figures. 

It  will  be  observed,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  food  pro- 
duced a  much  greater  increase  of  weight  than  is  the  case 
with  mature  animals,  one  pound  of  dry  matter  of  the  food 
producing  a  gain  of  almost  a  pound  in  weight.  The  cause 
of  this  we  shall  consider  later. 

The  following  table  gives  a  comparison  of  the  total  mi- 
tritive  matters^  protein,  and  nutritive  ratio  of  the  above 
ration  (calculated  on  1,000  pounds  live-weight)  with  tlie 


438 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


corresponding  quantities  in  the  food  of  various  other  an 
mals :  " 


Oxen  at  rest 

Sheep     "      

Fattening  oxen 

"         sheep 

I>°8 \t 

Calf 


Total 

nutritive 

matter. 

Lbs. 


8.85 

13.15 

18.50 

18,50 

8.73 
15.70 

19.30 


Digestible 

protein. 

Lbs. 

0.7 

1.5 

3.0 

3.5 

3.0 
5.1 

4.9 

Nutritive 
ratio. 


12 
8.0 

5.5 

4.5 

4.5 
5.0 

4.0 


Both  the  total  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  consumed 
by  the  calf  and  the  amount  of  protein  will  be  seen  to  be 
relatively  greater  than  in  the  case  of  any  of  the  other  herbi- 
vorous animals,  while  the  nutritive  ratio  is  narrower. 

The  food  of  the  young  calf  approaches  more  nearly  in 
its  composition  that  of  well-fed  carnivorous  animals,  as 
represented  by  ration  h  for  the  dog ;  and  the  resemblance 
becomes  still  more  close  when  we  consider  the  compara- 
tively large  ampimt  of  fat  in  the  food  of  the  calf. 

The  greater  relative  consumption  of  food  by  young  ani- 
mals, as  compared  with  mature  ones,  is  also  strikingly 
shown  in  the  experiments  on  lambs  described  in  §  3  of 
this  chapter. 


*  The  rations  for  oxen  and  sheep  are  Wolff's  feeding-standards.  Of 
the  two  rations  for  the  dog,  a  consists  of  500  grms.  fresh  meat  and  200 
grms.  fat — quantities  which  Voit  found  sufficient  to  keep  an  animal 
weighing  about  70  lbs.  in  fair  condition — and  h  is  a  richer  ration,  con- 
sisting of  800  grms.  fresh  meat  and  350  grms.  fat. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


439 


Production  of  Flesh. — We  have  already  learned  that 
the  proportion  of  the  albuminoids  of  the  food  which  is 
converted  into  flesh  is  quite  small  in  full-grown  animals, 
while  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the  protein  is  de- 
composed in  the  body  and  excreted  in  the  urine.  In  the 
young  calf,  on  the  contrary,  more  protein  is  retained  in 
tlie  body  than  is  oxidized  and  excreted,  the  result  being  a 
rapid  gain  of  flesh.  The  following  table  shows  the  rela- 
tion between  consumption  and  gain  of  protein  per  day  for 
an  average  animal  weighing  100  lbs. : 


Eaten Pounds. 

Excreted  in  dung " 

Digested " 

Excreted  in  urine J 

(       % 

I   Pounds. 
Retained  in  body ■{ 

i       % 


Nitrogen. 

Equivalent  to 
protein. 

.078 

.488 

.004 

.025 

.074 

.463 

.020 

.125 

27 

27 

.054 

.338 

73 

73 

Notwithstanding  the  large  amount  of  protein  eaten  and 
the  narrow  nutritive  ratio,  both  of  which  circumstances 
tend  to  increase  the  protein  consumption  in  the  body,  the 
young  calf  excretes  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of 
nitrogen  in  the  urine.  While  it  eats  nearly  as  much  protein 
as  a  well-fed  dog  of  equal  weight,  it  excretes  about  as  much 
as  the  latter  animal  does  in  hunger. 

In  other  words,  the  sucking  animal  (in  case  of  the  calf 
at  least)  is  able  to  apply  a  far  larger  proportion  of  the  al- 
buminoids which  it  receives  in  its  food  to  the  building  up 


440  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

of  its  body  than  is  the  case  with  mature  animals.  Com- 
bining this  Avith  the  relatively  larger  amount  of  food 
eaten,  we  can  readily  understand  the  rapid  increase  in 
weight  of  young  animals. 

Production  of  Fat. — By  means  of  a  respiration  appa- 
ratus, the  excretion  of  carbonic  acid  in  these  experiments 
was  determined.  The  following  table  gives  the  result  per 
day  for  the  average  animal  of  100  lbs.  weight,  and  also  a 
comparison  with  the  amount  excreted  per  100  lbs.  body- 
weight  by  other  animals : 

Calf 1.95  lbs. 

Man 1.3—1.4  '• 

Dog  (in  hunger) 1.1  " 

"    (well  fed) 1.8  " 

Ox  (maintenance  fodder) 1.0  " 

Ox  (fattening) 1.3  " 

Sheep  (maintenance  fodder) 1,7  " 

The  excretion  of  carbonic  acid  is,  in  general,  relatively 
greater  in  the  calf  than  in  mature  lierbivora,  and  ap- 
proaches that  of  the  well-fed  carnivora. 

The  gain  of  carbon  and  consequently  of  fat  per  day  was 
also  considerable. 

Carbon  per  100  lbs.  live-weight. 

In  food 0.98  lbs. 

Excreted 0.53  " 

Gain 0.45  " 

Contained  in  the  protein  gained 0.18  *' 

Gained  as  fat 0.27  " 

Corresponding  to  fat 0.35  '' 

Fat  in  the  food 0.47  " 

The  amount  of  fat  in  the  food  was  sufficient  to  supply 
all  that  was  gained. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


441 


Inorganic  Nutrients. — In  one  experiment  the  con- 
sumption and  excretion  of  the  mineral  ingredients  were 
determined.     The  results  on  an  animal  weighing  151.2  lbs. 


were  the  following : 


Consumed. 
Grms. 

Excreted 

in  urine  and 

dung. 

Grms. 

Retained. 

Grms. 

Per  cent. 

Total  ash 

81.34 
25.34 

8.85 
19.13 

1.80 
20.70 

5.57 

0.15 

37.20 
6.53 
8.30 
0.38 
1.08 

15.58 
4.16 
0.10 

44.14 
18.81 
0.55 
18.75 
0.72 
4.49 
1.41 
0.05 

54.30 

Phosphoric  acid 

Chlorine 

74.23 
6.22 

Lime o 

Magnesia 

98.00 

40.00 

Potash 

22  37 

Soda 

25.31 

Iron 

33  33 

The  large  amounts  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  retained 
in  the  body  are  specially  noteworthy.  These  substances 
are  the  chief  inorganic  ingredients  of  bone,  and  their  almost 
entire  retention,  particularly  that  of  the  lime,  in  the  above 
experiment,  indicates  the  importance  of  an  abundant  sup- 
ply of  these  ingredients  in  the  food  of  growing  animals. 

Soxhlet  remarks  that  it  would  seem  that  the  milk  of 
our  cattle  is  so  poor  in  lime  that  it  contains  barely  enough 
to  supply  the  wants  of  the  young  animal,  and  that  it  may 
be  advisable  to  help  out  the  supply  by  the  addition  of 
chalk  (carbonate  of  lime).  This  would  answer  the  pur- 
pose of  supplying  material  for  bone-building  as  well  as  the 
more  costly  phosphate  of  lime,  since,  according  to  the 
above  results,  a  lack  of  phosphoric  acid  is  not  to  be  feared. 
19* 


442  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

22.  Calves. 

In  the  foregoing  pages  we  have  endeavored  to  deduce, 
from  experiments  on  calves,  some  principles  which  may 
serve  as  the  groundwork  for  practical  conclusions.  The 
data  for  this  are,  indeed,  scanty,  and  the  whole  subject  of 
the  feeding  of  young  animals  needs  accurate  scientific  in- 
vestigation. At  the  same  time,  we  know  enough  to  enable 
us  to  deduce  some  useful  hints  and  indications. 

Before  'weaning,  milk  usually  forms  the  chief  or  only 
fodder.  For  the  first  few  days  after  birth  it  is  espe- 
cially important  that  the  calf  have  the  milk  of  its  own 
mother.  The  so-called  colostrum  (p.  416)  has  an  essentially 
different  composition  fi*om  the  milk  produced  later,  con- 
taining far  more  dry  matter  and  considerable  albumin, 
while  the  amounts  of  fat  and  sugar  are  relatively  less ;  the 
nutritive  ratio  is  narrower,  and  the  digestibility  apparently 
greater. 

These  differences  nearly  disappear  in  the  course  of  a 
week  (sooner  in  cows  yielding  much  milk  than  in  those 
yielding  little),  and  after  this  it  is  a  matter  of  indifference, 
so  far  as  the  nutritive  effect  is  concerned,  whether  the  calf 
be  fed  from  its  own  mother  or  not. 

Nutritive  Ratio. — That  a  milk  diet  is  capable  of  supply- 
ing material  for  rapid  growth  is  matter  of  common  expe- 
rience, and  is  illustrated  by  the  experiments  of  the  preced- 
ing section.  The  comparatively  narrow  nutritive  ratio  of 
good  milk  does  not  cause  that  waste  of  protein  which  it 
would  in  mature  animals,  and  the  calf  is  thus  enabled  to 
consume  relatively  large  quantities  of  this  most  important 
of  all  nutrients  in  a  small  bulk,  and  thus  to  supply  the 
body  with  abundance  of  material  for  growth. 

It  would  seem  from  some  experiments,  however,  that 


MANCTAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


443 


the  nutritive  ratio  may  in  some  cases  be  advantageously 
made  wider,  especially  if  tlie  milk  is  very  rich.  In  some 
experiments  made  long  ago  in  Saxony,*  three  calves,  four- 
teen days  old,  and  weighing  117,  130,  and  114  lbs.,  were 
fed  daily  as  follows:  Ko.  1  with  13.2  lbs.  cow's  milk  and 
13.2  lbs.  whey ;  No.  2  with  22  lbs.  of  skimmed  milk ;  and 
No.  3  with  17.6  lbs.  milk  and  3.9  lbs.  cream. 

The  average  consumption  and  the  gain  in  weight  per 
day  were  as  follows : 


Consumed. 

Nutritive 

Ratio,  t 

1  : 

Gain 

per  clay. 

Lbs. 

Pounds  of 

Organic 

Substance. 

Lbs. 

Protein. 
Lbs. 

Sugar. 
Lbs. 

Fat. 
Lbs. 

0.51 

matter 

to  1  lb. 

of  growth. 

No. 

1... 

2.3 

0.54 

1.29 

4.8 

1.88 

1.35 

No. 

2 

2.0 

0.70 

1.02 

0.22 

2.2 

1.14 

1.88 

No. 

3... 

3.0 

0.73 

1.02 

1.22 

5.6 

3.38 

0.97 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  gain  in  weight  was  strikingly 
different,  according  to  the  food  used. 

The  least  gaui  was  made  in  the  second  experiment, 
where  the  nutritive  ratio  was  very  narrow.  In  this  case 
there  is  little  doubt  that,  in  spite  of  the  comparatively 
small  protein  consumption  of  young  animals,  a  considera- 
ble waste  of  protein  must  have  taken  place,  resulting  in  a 
small  gain. 


*  Wolff  :  "  Landwirthschaftliche  Fiitterungslehre,"  p.  152. 

f  In  calculating  the  nutritive  ratio,  the  fat  has  been  converted  into 
its  ''starch-equivalent"  by  multiplying  it  by  2.5.  The  milk  used  in 
these  experiments  was  rather  rich  in  nitrogen  and  poor  in  fat.  With 
more  average  milk,  the  nutritive  ratio  in  No.  1  and  No.  3  would  have 
been  still  wider. 


444  MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 

In  the  third  experiment  the  food  was  the  same  as  in  the 
second,  with  the  addition  of  a  pound  of  fat  per  day.  This 
addition  of  fat  evidently  rendered  the  protein  consumption 
less,  while  also  supplying  more  material  for  fat  formation, 
and,  as  a  result,  a  very  marked  gain  was  produced.  The 
amount  of  organic  matter  required  to  produce  a  gain  of 
one  pound  was  also  less  in  this  case  than  in  either  of  the 
others,  and  somewhat  less  than  in  Soxhlet's  experiments. 

A  comparison  of  the  first  and  second  experiments  is  es- 
pecially instructive.  The  total  amount  of  nutritive  matters 
consumed  in  the  two  cases  w^as  about  the  same,  but  the 
wider  nutritive  ratio  of  the  first  experiment  caused  a 
greater  and  more  economical  gain. 

Sugar  in  Place  of  Fat. — The  first  of  the  above  ex- 
periments is  particularly  interesting  as  showing  that  a 
satisfactory  gain  may  be  brought  about  by  a  ration  com- 
paratively poor  in  protein,  but  having  a  rather  wide  nutri- 
tive ratio,  and  also  that  sugar  may  be  advantageously  used 
instead  of  the  more  costly  fat  to  produce  this  wider  nutri- 
tive ratio.  This  result  is  of  practical  value,  because  it 
seems  to  indicate  quite  clearly  that  even  with  pretty  young 
calves  a  portion  of  the  milk,  perhaps  half,  may  be  replaced 
by  whey,*  or  perhaps  that  skimmed  milk,f  with  the  addi- 
tion of  sugar  or  starch,  may  be  used  instead  of  whole 
milk. 

It  is  questionable,  however,  whether  the  fat  of  the  milk 
can  be  w^holly  replaced  by  carbhydrates  with  safety.     Fat 

*  In  the  manufacture  of  cheese,  most  of  the  casein  and  fat  are  re- 
moved from  the  milk  in  the  curd,  while  the  whey  contains  nearly  all  of 
the  milk-sugar,  together  with  a  little  fat  and  protein.  (See  Table  of 
Composition  of  Feeding-stufFs  in  Appendix. ) 

f  Skimmed  milk  has  lost  chiefly  fat,  which,  on  the  a,bove  plan,  would 
be  replaced,  at  least  to  a  certain  extent,  by  starch  or  sugar. 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  445 

is  the  most  concentrated  of  all  the  non-nitrogenous  nutri* 
ents,  and  m  the  finely  divided  state  in  which  it  exists  in 
milk  is  probably  very  easily  digestible  by  the  young  ani- 
mal. In  addition  to  this,  the  greater  palatability  of  nor- 
mal milk  is  an  important  factor  in  determining  the  effect 
of  feeding,  as  has  already  been  explained  in  connection 
with  other  fodders.  Whole  milk  is  the  natural  fodder  of 
young  animals,  and  the  one  whose  composition  must  be 
imitated  as  closely  as  possible  in  all  attempts  to  substitute 
other  materials  for  it,  and  w4iicli,  for  the  first  two  weeks 
at  least,  should,  if  possible,  form  the  only  food. 

During  the  first  four  to  six  weeks,  an  mcrease  of  1  lb. 
live-weight  is  obtained,  on  the  average,  with  about  10  lbs.  of 
milk  (1.25  lb.  dry  organic  matter).  At  first  the  quantity 
of  milk  is  a  little  less,  and  toward  the  close  a  little  more. 
Since,  however,  the  composition  of  milk  is  variable,  the 
amount  of  fat,  especially,  varying  from  2  to  5  per  cent.,  and 
the  nutritive  ratio  consequently  from  1  :  3.3  to  1  :  5.5,  it  is 
easy  to  see  why  the  effect  produced  by  the  same  quantity 
of  milk  should  vary  considerably  in  different  cases. 

Substitutes  for  Milk. — It  is  sometimes  desirable  to 
replace  the  milk  partly  or  wholly  by  other  feeding- stuffs. 
In  doing  this,  it  should  be  the  aim  to  compound  a  ration 
approaching  milk  as  closely  as  possible,  not  only  in  com- 
position, but  also  (and  this  is  quite  as  important)  in  prop- 
erties. It  should  be  easily  digestible,  liquid  if  possible, 
and  should  be  fed  warm. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the 
various  substitutes  for  milk  which  have  been  proposed.  It 
is  om*  office  simply  to  point  out  the  principle  on  which 
they  should  be  based,  viz.,  as  close  an  imitation  of  the 
composition  and  properties  of  normal  milk  as  possible. 

The  tables  of  the  composition  and  digestibility  of  feed- 


446  MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

ing-stuffs  contained  in  the  Appendix  will  aid  in  forming  a 
judgment  as  to  how  far  these  conditions  are  fullilled  in 
any  proposed  substitute,  while  actual  trial  alone  can  fix  its 
tiiie  practical  value. 

Weaning. — It  is  one  of  the  feeders  chief  problems  to 
bring  about  the  change  from  exclusive  milk  feeding  to 
other  fodder  in  such  a  manner  as  not  only  to  cause  no  fall- 
ing off  in  the  condition  of  the  animal,  but  so  that  a  con- 
stant increase  in  the  live-weight  shall  take  place  during,  or 
at  least  immediately  after  weaning.  This  can  only  be 
accomplished  by  making  the  change  as  gradual  as  possible 
and  replacing  the  milk  by  substitutes  of  suitable  digesti- 
bility, palatability,  and  nutritive  quality.  Crushed  and 
boiled  flaxseed  is  at  first  very  well  suited  to  this  purpose. 
Later,  oil  cake  or  palm-nut  cake,  and  also  oats,  barley, 
malt  sprouts,  etc.,  can  be  profitably  used,  w^hile  by  feeding 
the  finest  and  tenderest  hay  the  animals  are  gradually  ac- 
customed to  coarse  fodder. 

When  the  calves  can  be  early  put  upon  good  pasturage 
the  weaning  will  accomplish  itself  ;  but  where  this  is  not 
the  case  and  they  must  be  stall-fed,  more  care  is  demanded. 
At  first  the  same  nutritive  ratio  should  be  maintained  as 
in  average  milk,  or,  at  most,  it  may  be  a  little  widened  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  weaning.  The  fat  of  the  milk,  how- 
ever, may  be  pretty  rapidly  replaced  by  a  corresponding 
quantity  of  easily  digestible  carbhydrates,  without,  how- 
ever, making  the  change  too  sudden.  In  this  way  the 
complete  weaning  of  the  calves  may  be  accomplished  by 
the  end  of  the  ninth  or  tenth  week,  or  even  earlier. 

After  Weaning. — After  weaning  it  is  advisable  to  con- 
tinue for  some  time  the  use  of  quite  concentrated  food 
with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :  5— 6. 

Soxhlet's  experiments  (p.  439)  render  it  probable  that 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING.  447 

all  young  and  growing  animals  utilize  a  larger  proportion 
of  the  protein  of  their  food  than  mature  animals,  and  only 
lose  this  power  gradually  as  they  approach  maturity.  A 
growing  animal,  then,  may  economically  i-eceive  a  relative- 
ly large  proportion  of  protein,  thus  placing  at  its  disposal 
an  abundance  of  material  for  forming  new  tissue,  while  as 
it  grows  older  either  the  amount  nnist  be  decreased  or 
more  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  must  be  added  to  the  ra- 
tion in  order  to  protect  the  protein  from  waste,  i.  <?.,  the 
nutritive  ratio  must  be  widened. 

Moreover,  the  stomach  of  the  vouno;  animal  does  not  at 
once  become  capable  of  accommodating  and  digesting  large 
masses  of  fodder,  and  hence  its  food  must  at  first  occupy  a 
comparatively  small  bulk — must  contain  much  nutriment 
in  a  small  volume.  It  is  desirable  also  that  the  fodder 
should  not  be  too  watery,  for  much  the  same  reasons  as 
those  adduced  under  fattening. 

When  the  animals  have  reached  the  age  of  six  to  nine 
months,  however,  the  fodder  may  be  gradually  made  more 
bulky  and  less  rich  in  protein  and  nutritive  matters  in  gen- 
eral, and  roots  may  now  be  used  more  freely  than  before. 

To  obtain  good  milk  cows,  especially,  the  rich  feeding 
must  not  be  continued  too  long,  as  it  tends  to  develop  an 
inclination  to  fattening  rather  than  to  milk  production.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  animals  are  to  be  fattened,  it  might 
be  an  advantage  to  continue  a  pretty  rich  feeding. 

In  the  feeding  standards  given  in  the  Appendix  these 
considerations  have  been  taken  into  account.  It  is  to  be 
remarked,  in  regard  to  these  standards,  that  they  have 
their  basis  rather  in  practical  experience  than  in  exact 
scientific  investigation,  and,  like  all  feeding  standards,  are 
subject  to  modification  both  by  the  experience  of  the  user 
and  the  results  of  further  investigation. 


448  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

^  3.     Lambs, 

Quality  of  Fodder. — Young  lambs  increase  in  weight 
relatively  more  rapidly  than  calves,  and  easily  suffer  from  in- 
sufficient food,  and  hence  great  care  must  be  observed  in  feed- 
ing them.  This  is  especially  the  case  as  regards  the  choice 
of  the  coarse  fodder  during  and  immediately  after  weaning. 

Lambs  do  best  upon  good  pasturage.  If  fed  in  the  stall, 
they  must  receive  only  the  best  and  tenderest  hay.  If  tlie 
latter  is  even  slightly  too  coarse  or  is  unpalatable  from  any 
cause,  such  as  unfavorable  weather  during  its  making,  the 
animals  will  not  eat  a  sufficient  quantity,  and  will  be  strik- 
ingly retarded  in  their  development.  Even  hay  of  aver- 
age quality  requires  the  addition  of  grain,  best  of  oats,  or 
of  some  other  nitrogenous  feeding-stuff. 

Feeding  for  Maintenance. — Wolff's  Experiments. 
— Some  experiments  made  by  Wolff, "^  at  Hohenheim,  on 
the  digestibility  of  fodder  by  sheep  of  two  different  breeds, 
are  also  of  value  in  fixing  a  feeding  standard  for  lambs. 

Four  lambs  of  the  so-called  Wiirttemberg  bastard  breed, 
about  five  months  old  and  weighing  about  fifty  pounds  per 
head,  were  used.  Similar  experiments  were  attempted  on 
Southdown  lambs,  but  were  interrupted  by  sickness  of  the 
animals.  Two  of  the  four  lambs  were  fed  with  hay  ex- 
clusively for  nine  months.  The  other  two  received,  in 
addition,  grain  and  oil  cake,  and  fattened  quite  rapidly, 
while  the  first  two  received  only  maintenance  fodder.  Wc 
will  take  up  first  the  results  obtained  on  the  hay -fed  lambs, 
omitting,  for  the  present,  the  question  of  fattening. 

The  experiment  was  divided  into  five  periods,  in  each  of 
which  the  composition  and  digestibility  of  the  hay  were 
carefully  determined.      In  each   period   the  animals  re- 

*  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  II. ,  231. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


449 


ceived  as  mucli  hay  as  they  would  eat,  the  amount  con- 
sumed being,  of  course,  carefully  determined. 

In  the  first  and  second  periods  the  fodder  was  a  very 
excellent  quality  of  early-cut  meadow  hay,  nearly  TO  per 
cent,  of  the  total  organic  matter  of  which  was  digested. 
In  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  periods  it  was  rowen,  which, 
indeed,  was  of  good  quality  and  was  well  digested,  but  which 
was  unpalatable  to  the  animals  after  the  better  fodder  which 
they  had  received,  the  consequence  being  that  they  ate  con- 
siderably less  and  gained  little  or  nothing  in  weight. 

The  following  table  shows  the  average  consumption  of 
fodder  per  day  and  head,  the  amount  of  nutrients  actually  di- 
gested, and  the  gain  in  weight,  for  each  of  the  five  periods. 


Age. 
Months. 

Average 

weight. 

Lbs. 

Hay 
eaten. 
Lbs. 

Digested  per  Day. 

Gain  per 

Period. 

Protein. 
Lb. 

Fat. 
Lb. 

Carbhy- 

drates. 

Lb. 

day. 
Lb. 

1  .... 

2  .... 

3  .... 

4  .... 

5  .... 

5-6 

6-8 

8-9 

9-12 

12-14 

58.5 

66.8 
72.2 
73.0 
76.3 

1.89 
2.01 

1.71 
1.46 
1.89 

0.185 

0.198 
0.135 
0.101 
0.123 

0.020 
0.023 
0.028 
0  021 
0.031 

0.912 
1.121 

0.799 
0.710 
0.888 

0.241 
0.152 
0.058 
0.002 
0.100 

Effect  of  Change  of  Fodder. — In  the  first  and  second 
periods  the  gain  was  very  satisfactory,  but  with  the  change 
of  fodder  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  period  the  amount 
eaten  sank,  and  the  gain  per  day  dropped  to  nearly  a  third 
of  the  previous  figure.  In  the  fourth  period  this  was  still 
more  marked,  the  fodder  being  barely  sufficient  to  sustain 
the  animals,  and  only  in  the  fifth  period,  after  four 
months,  did  the  consumption  of  hay  and  the  gain  of  weight 
\ise  again.   A  more  striking  example  could  hardly  be  given 


450  MANUAL   OF   CATTLTil-FEEDIKG. 

of  the  need  of  care  in  changing  from  a  good  to  a  poorer 
fodder  in  the  case  of  young  animals. 

Feeding  Standards. — It  is  probable  that  if  the  animals 
had  been  able  to  eat  as  much  of  the  second  fodder  as  of 
the  first,  or  if  some  fodder  which  contained  about  the  same 
amount  of  nutrients  but  was  more  palatable  to  the  ani- 
mals had  been  used,  the  gain  of  weight  would  have  con- 
tinued regularly,  decreasing  gradually  with  increasing  age. 

On  the  assumption  that  the  results  of  the  first,  second, 
and  fifth  periods  are  normal,  the  feeding  standards  given 
in  the  Appendix  have  been  calculated  by  Wolff.  They  are 
intended  for  animals  of  medium  fineness  of  wool,  and 
wdiich,  when  full  growm,  weigh  90  to  100  lbs.  Such  ani- 
mals, when  fed  in  this  way,  will,  on  reaching  the  above 
weight,  be  in  a  well-fed  condition  and  ready  either  for  fat- 
tening or  for  wool  production. 

In  the  above  experiments  this  result  was  obtained  by 
the  use  of  hay  alone,  but  this  course  will  only  succeed 
when  the  hay  is  of  very  superior  quality.  AVlien  this  is 
not  the  case,  and  a  good  pasture  is  not  available,  an  addi- 
tion of  grain  must  be  made  to  the  hay  ration,  in  order  to 
bring  the  quantity  of  nutrients  up  to  the  standard. 

It  will  be  noticed  that,  according  to  the  feeding  stand- 
ards deduced  above,  the  quantity  of  protein  required  per 
day  and  head  decreases  as  the  age  of  the  animals  increases, 
and  that  the  amount  of  the  non -nitrogenous  nutrients  re- 
mains about  the  same,  notwithstanding  that  the  live-weight 
is  continually  increasing. 

Young  animals,  as  already  stated  (p.  438),  need  a  rela- 
tively large  amount  of  total  dry  matter  and  of  digestible  sub- 
stance in  their  fodder,  and  gain  weight  with  corresponding 
rapidity,  while  later,  the  necessary  amount  of  food  decreases 
quite  rapidly,  as  does  also  the  increase  of  weight.     The 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  451 

more  rapid  gain  in  weight  at  first  is  doubtless  caused,  in 
part  at  least,  by  the  power  of  the  young  animal  to  appro- 
priate to  the  building  up  of  its  body  a  large  proportion  of 
the  very  considerable  amount  of  protein  contained  in  its 
fodder.  Another  circumstance,  however,  must  be  taken 
into  account,  viz.,  the  fact  that  the  flesh  of  young  and 
rapidly  growing  animals  contains  a  larger  percentage  of 
water  than  that  of  older  animals.  This  fact  should  always 
be  borne  in  mind  in  comparing  the  effects  of  a  ration  upon 
young  and  old  animals  simply  by  the  gain  of  live-weight. 

Weiske's  Experiments. — Some  recent  experiments  by 
Weiske  ^  on  the  feeding  of  lambs  are  of  interest  in  this 
connection.  During  nine  consecutive  periods  of  about  one 
and  one-quarter  months  each,  covering  the  time  from  the 
fourth  to  the  fifteenth  month  of  the  animals'  age,  the  fod- 
der of  the  animals  was  carefully  weighed  out  each  day,  and 
any  portions  left  uneaten  were  also  weighed  and  deducted. 
At  the  close  of  the  ninth  period  came  a  pause  of  about  nine 
months,  after  which  a  tenth  experiment  was  made,  the 
animals  being  then  full-grown. 

The  fodder  consisted  at  first  of  hay  and  peas.  As  the 
experiments  progressed  the  quantity  of  the  former  was 
gradually  increased  and  that  of  the  latter  diminished,  till 
in  the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  periods  the  ration  was  com- 
posed exclusively  of  hay.  In  each  period  the  live-weight, 
the  digestibility  of  the  fodder,  and  the  excretion  of  nitro- 
gen in  the  urine  were  determined,  the  investigation  of  the 
excrements  and  the  weighing  extending  over  eight  days. 

That  the  fodder  was  abundantly  sufficient  was  shown  by 
the  regular  increase  in  weight,  and  also  by  the  fact  that  the 
animals  gained  weight  faster  than  similar  animals  from  the 
same  herd  on  good  pasturage. 


*  Landw.  Jahrbiicher,  IX.,  205. 


452 


MANUAL    OF   CATTLE-FEEDIXa. 


The  experiments  were  begun  witli  two  animals,  but, 
owing  to  various  causes,  accurate  results  could  in  several 
cases  be  obtained  only  on  one.  The  numbers  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  refer  to  lamb  ]Xo.  IL,  unless  the  contrary  is 
stated.  The  ages  given  in  the  table  are  only  approximate  ; 
the  live- weight  is  in  each  case  the  average  of  eight  weigh- 
ings made  toward  the  close  of  the  period. 
Per  Head. 


Age. 
Months. 

Live- 
weight. 
Lbs. 

Digested  peb  Day. 

Nntr. 

Ratio. 

]  : 

Gain  per  Day. 

Period. 

Protein. 
Lb. 

Pat. 
Lb. 

Carbhy- 

drates. 

Lb. 

Live- 
weight. 
Lb. 

Flesh. 
Lb. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9*.... 
10 

4^i 
5i-6i 

H-n 

7f-9 

9-lOi 

lOi-lli 

lli-12f 

121-14 

14-15 

24 

45.0 
56.2* 
63.5 
71.7 
77.0 
77.6 
83.6 
89.1 
85.8 
126.5 

0.17 
0.18 
0.18 

0.20 
0.18 
0.18 
0.18 
0.17 
0.16 
0.15 

0.03 
0.04 
0.04 
0.04 
0.04 
0.04 
0.05 
0.05 
0.04 
0.06 

0.74 
0.92 
0.90 
0.98 
0.95 
0.94 
0.96 
0.99 
0.98 
1.18 

4.8 
5.7 
5.6 
5.4 
5.8 
5.8 
6.0 
6.6 
6.8 
8.9 

0.28 
0.27 

0.23 
0.20 
0  13 
0.09 
0.13 
0.16 

0.17 
0.17 
0.15 
0.18 
0.15 
0.13 
0.19 
0.16 

0.14 

These  figures  agree  as  closely  as  can  be  expected  in  ex- 
periments of  this  sort  with  the  results  obtained  by  Wolff, 
and  show  the  correctness  of  the  feeding  standards  recom- 
mended by  him. 

The  amount  of  digestible  protein  required  per  day  and 
head  by  lambs  is  shown  by  these  figures  to  be  essentially 
the  same  in  all  the  periods,  notwithstanding  the  increase  in 

*  Lamb  No.  1. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDITTG. 


453 


weight,  while  the  quantity  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients 
increases  slightly.  In  Wolff's  experiments,  both  the  pro- 
tein and  the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  decreased  in  quan- 
tity toward  the  end  of  the  experiments.  As  already  noted, 
Weiske's  lambs  grew  faster  than  others  of  the  same  herd, 
and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  slightly  less  food  would  have 
given  satisfactory  results. 

The  gain  of  live-weight  diminished  as  the  animals  ap- 
proached maturity,  while  the  protein  consumption,  as  well 
as  the  gain  of  flesh,  per  head,  was  foimd  to  be  nearly  con- 
stant throughout.  If,  however,  the  results  are  calculated 
per  100  pounds  live-weight,  as  in  Soxhlet's  experiments  on 
calves,  we  have  a  somewhat  different  showing.  In  the 
following  table  this  has  been  done. 

Per  100  Pounds  Live-weight. 


Period. 


Digested  per  Day. 


Protein. 
Lbs. 


1 

0.38 

2 

0.33 

3 

0.28 

4 

0.28 

5 

0.24 

0 

0.23 

7 

0.22 

8 

0.20 

9 

0.19 

10 

0.12 

Fat. 
Lbs. 


0.07 
0.07 
0.06 
0.06 
0.05 
0.06 
0.05 
0.05 
0.06 
0.05 


Carbhy- 

drates. 

Lbs. 


1.67 
1.66 
1.41 

1.36 
1.23 
1.22 
1.15 
1.11 
1.09 
0.93 


Gain  of 

weight 

per  day. 

Lbs. 


0.73 

0.54 
0.41 
0.31 
0.17 
0.13 
0.17 
0.19 


Protein 
consump- 
tion per 

day. 

Lbs. 


0.29 
0.26 

0.23 
0.22 
0.20 
0.19 
0.17 
0.16 

0.10 


Gain  of 

protein 

per  day. 

Lbs. 


0.09 
0.07 
0.05 
0.06 
0.04 
0.04 
0.05 
0.04 

0.02 


Gain  of 
protein  in 
perct.  of 

amount 


23.7 
21.2 
17.9 
21.4 
16.7 
17.4 
22.7 
20.0 

16.7 


,    We  see  that  as  the  animals  grew  older   the  relative 
amount  of  food  consumed  decreased,  and  that  the  gain  of 


454 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


weiglit  likewise  became  less  rapid.  The  protein  consump- 
tion, too,  decreased,  in  consequence  of  the  diminished 
supply  of  this  nutrient,  and  the  gain  of  protein,  though 
varying  somewhat  from  period  to  period,  also  showed  a  de- 
cided decrease.  The  results  regarding  the  percentage  of 
the  total  digested  protein  which  was  retained  in  the  body 
contrast  strongly  with  those  obtained  by  Soxhlet  on  suck- 
ing calves  (p.  439),  and  show  that  the  protein  consumption 
increases  quite  rapidly  in  growing  animals,  and  even  at  a 
comparatively  early  age  becomes  nuicli  greater  than  the 
gain  of  protein  by  the  body. 

The  respiratory  products  were  not  determined  in  these 
experiments,  but  from  the  observed  gain  of  nitrogen,  sul- 
phur, and  mineral  matters,  it  was  calculated  that  the  in- 
crease in  weight  in  the  first  nine  periods  (53.9  Ibs.'^)  had 
approximately  the  following  composition  : 


Lbs. 

Lbs. 

8.29 

2.43 

37.03 

G.15 

53.90 

Flesh                     "            '*       

34.54 

Pure  wool  ^ water- free^       .      .          

5.47 

Fat  and  water     

Fat 

8.10 

Mineral  matters 

"             "     less  those  of  crude  wool 

Total  gain  

5.79 
53.90 

*  The  gain  in  weight  is  the  difference  between  the  live-weight  at  the 
beginning  of  the  first  and  the  end  of  the  ninth  period,  and  hence  is 
greater  than  would  appeal-  from  the  table  on  page  452,  which  gives  only 
the  average  weight  for  each  period. 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


455 


These  figures  are  interesting  as  showing  the  large  gain 
of  flesh  made  by  the  young  aniniilo,  while,  as  we  have 
seen,  mature  animals,  even  when  highly  fed,  gain  chiefly 
fat. 

Fattening.  —  Wolff's  Experiments. — In  the  experi- 
ments by  Wolff,  partially  described  on  page  448,  two  of 
the  lambs  received,  in  addition  to  the  hay,  oats,  and  oil 
cake,  and  at  the  close  of  the  experiment  were  found  to 
be  well  fattened.  The  following  table  show^s  the  total 
amount  of  fodder  (water-free)  eaten,  the  amount  of  digesti- 
ble nutrients,  and  the  gain  in  w^eight,  per  day  and  head,  for 
the  several  periods : 


Period. 


Age. 
Months. 


Average 

live- 
weight. 
Lbs. 


Total 

fodder. 

Lbs. 


Digested, 


Protein. 
Lb. 


Fat. 
Lb. 


Carbhy- 

drates. 

Lb. 


Nutr. 

Ratio. 

1: 


Gain 

per  day. 

Lbs. 


1 

5-6 

6  8 

8-9 

9-12 

13-14 

59.7 

70.7 
78.9 
84.8 
95.8 

2 

3 

4 

5 

1.99 
2.03 
1.91 
1.82 
1.76 


0.31 

0.08 

0.24 

0.08 

0.21 

0.10 

0.19 

0.06 

0.19 

0.08 

0.97 

1.02 
0.92 
0.91 
0.89 


5.6 
5.1 
5.6 
5.6 

5.7 


0.26 
0.24 
0.07 
0.12 
0.19 


In  the  last  three  periods  the  consumption  of  fodder  fell 
off  considerably,  especially  if  we  take  into  account  the  in- 
creased weight  of  the  animals.  The  average  consumption 
of  digestible  protein  per  day  and  head  was  0.21  pound, 
and  the  nutritive  ratio  did  not  vary  greatly  from  1 :  5.6. 

We  shall  not,  therefore,  err  greatly  if  we  say  that  a 

ration  containing,  per  day  and  head,  about  0.20  pound  of 

.digestible  protein,  and  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  about 

1 :  5.6,  and  fed  constantly  from  the  age  of  six  months  on. 


456  MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

irrespective  of  tlie  increase  in  weight,  will,  in  eight  to  nine 
months,  yield  animals  weighing  in  the  neighborhood  of 
100  lbs.,  and  well  fattened. 

Richer  Feeding. — By  richer  feeding  a  still  more  rapid 
gain  may  be  obtained. 

In  some  experiments  by  Stohmann,"'^  lambs  seven  to 
eight  months  old  were  fed  for  ^ve  months  upon  straw, 
potatoes,  clover  hay,  and  oil  cake.  These  feeding-stuffs 
were  combined  into  four  different  rations,  two  (Xos.  2  and 
3)  containing,  per  day  and  head,  on  the  average,  0.28  lb. 
of  digestible  protein,  and  the  other  two  (Nos.  1  and  4) 
about  0.38  lb.  The  quantity  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients 
was  such  that  the  nutritive  ratio  of  one  ration  of  each  pair 
w^as  wider  than  that  of  the  other,  as  shown  by  the  table 
on  the  opposite  page. 

All  the  animals  gained  w^eight  rapidly,  but  it  was  ob- 
served that  the  rations  containing  the  larger  amount  of 
protein,  produced,  as  was  to  be  expected,  the  greatest 
effect  (compare  p.  399  et  seq.),  and  also  that  the  wider  nu- 
tritive ratios  gave  better  results  than  the  narrower,  a  thing 
which  was  also  to  be  expected.  The  latter  fact  was  espe- 
cially noticeable  after  the  animals  were  shoi-n  at  the  end  of 
the  fourth  month.  After  this,  0.46t  lb.  of  protein  per  day, 
with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :  3.9,  not  only  gave  a  poorer  result 
than  about  the  same  quantity  with  a  ratio  of  1 : 4.3,  but 
hardly  a  better  than  0.33t  lb.  of  protein  with  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  1 :  5.3. 


*  Jour.  f.  Landw.,  1807,  p.  133;  "  Ernahrung  der  Landw.  Nutz- 
thiere,"  p.  439. 

f  The  quantities  of  protein  first  given  are  the  average  amounts  for 
the  first  four  months.  The  actual  quantity  was  gradually  increased 
with  the  growth  of  the  animals,  and  hence  the  average  for  the  last 
month  is  higher. 


MANUAL   OP  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


457 


Tlie  following  table  gives  the  average  amount  of  digesti- 
ble protein  and  non-nitrogenous  nutrients,  the  nutritive 
ratio,  and  the  gain  in  weight,  per  day  and  head,  both  be- 
fore and  after  shearing.  The  experiments  extended  over 
four  months  before  the  shearing  and  one  month  after. 


Before 

Shearing. 

Lotl. 

Lot  2. 

Lots. 

Lot  4. 

Digestible  protein.     Lb 

0.38 

1.54 

1:4.1 

0.25 

0.28 

1.56 

1:5.6 

0.21 

0.28 

1.36 

1:4.9 

0.17 

0.38 

Digestible  non-nitrogenous  nutri- 
ents.    Lbs 

1  41 

Nutritive  ratio 

1:3.7 

Gain  per  day.     Lb 

0  21 

After  Shearing. 


Digestible  protein.     Lb. 


Digestible  non-nitrogenous  nutri- 
ents.     Lbs 


Nutritive  ratio 

Gain  per  day.     Lb. . . 
Average  live -weight. 


Dressed  weight  in  per  cent,  of  live- 
weight    


Lbs. 


0.48 

0.35 

0.33 

2.04 

2.02 

1.76 

1:4.3 

1:5.8 

1:5.3 

0.28 

0.25 

0.23 

95.00 

92.00 

86.00 

58.1 

57.4 

56.2 

0.46 

1.80 
1:3.9 

0.24 
92.00 

53.1 


It  was,  of  course,  to  be  expected  that,  other  things  being 
equal,  the  ration  furnishing  the  most  protein  would  give 
the  best  results.  A  limit,  however,  exists  in  the  fact  that 
the  animals  can  consume  only  a  certain  amount  of  food, 
and  that  consequently  it  is  impossible  to  feed  enough  non- 
nitrogenous  matters  to  prevent  a  waste  of  protein  when  a 
very  large  amount  of  the  latter  is  given. 
20 


458  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

According  to  these  results,  a  ration  containing  0.28  to 
0.38  lb.  of  digestible  protein,  per  day  and  head,  and  hav- 
ing a  nutritive  ratio  of  about  1 :  5,  will  produce  in  about 
five  months  the  same  result  as  the  poorer  ration  used  in 
Wolff's  experiments  (p.  455)  did  in  nine. 

To  attain  such  a  result,  however,  care  must  be  exercised 
in  the  choice  of  the  feeding-stuffs,  so  as  to  ensure  the  com- 
plete consumption  of  the  ration.  Moreover,  the  cost  of 
such  feeding  is  an  important  consideration,  and  the  farmer 
will  do  well  to  consider  whether  it  would  not  be  cheaper  to 
use  the  poorer  ration,  or  even  to  defer  the  real  fattening 
until  later.     (See  p.  402.) 

It  should  be  added  that  these  feeding  standards,  like 
those  for  maintenance,  apply  to  animals  of  medium  fine- 
ness of  wool,  weighing,  when  full  grown,  90-100  poimds. 
Fine-wooled  animals  generally  require  rather  more  food 
than  coarse-wooled,  and  heavier  animals  need  more  than 
lighter. 

^  4.  Pigs. 

Variations  in  Fodder. — In  regard  to  the  feeding  of 
pigs  to  be  used  for  breeding,  or  which  are  to  be  fattened 
after  reaching  maturity,  no  exact  experiments  have  been 
made. 

More  commonly,  however,  pigs  receive  a  full  fattening 
fodder  from  the  time  they  are  weaned,  and  the  experi- 
ments on  the  fattening  of  pigs  are  quite  numerous.  These 
experiments  have  shown  that  the  fodder  of  the  pig  may 
vary  more  in  its  composition  than  that  of  almost  any  other 
domestic  animal,  resembling  in  this  respect  that  of  car- 
nivorous animals.  It  may  be  made  very  rich  in  protein, 
having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1  :  2,  or  it  may  safely  be  made 
pretty  rich  in  digestible  carbhydrates.     Adding  to  this  the 


MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 


459 


relatively  large  amount  of  fodder  consumed  by  the  pig,  it 
becomes  plain  that  both  the  nutritive  effect  and  the  cost  of 
the  feeding  may  vary  greatly,  and  that  consequently  the 
feeding  standards  for  pigs  must  be  still  more  general  in 
their  nature  than  those  for  other  animals. 

Nutritive  Ratio. — All  experiments  on  pigs  agree  in 
shovidng  that  with  young  animals  a  nwrroio  nutritive  ratio 
produces  the  most  rapid  gain  with  the  least  expenditure  of 
fodder,  while  as  the  animals  grow  older  the  best  results, 
both  as  to  rapidity  of  gain  and  quality  of  product,  are 
generally  obtained  by  using  a  somewhat  wider  ratio. 

Of  the  numerous  experiments  illustrating  this,  the  fol- 
lowing by  Lehmann*  may  serve  as  an  example.  The 
feeding-stuffs  used  were  skimmed  milk,  peas,  oats,  barley, 
rye  bran,  and  potatoes.  Six  animals  were  divided  into 
three  lots  of  two  each :  Lot  I.  received  in  each  period  a 
fodder  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  about  1:4;  Lot  II.  one 
having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  about  1  :  G  ;  and  Lot  III.  one 
having  a  ratio  of  1:8.  The  following  table  contains  the 
principal  results  of  the  experiments : 

Period  I.— 13  Days  (Age  :  68-81  Days). 


Per  Day  and  Head. 

Nutr. 

ratio. 

1: 

To  Produce  a  Gain  of  100  Pounds. 

Lot. 

Average 

live- 
weight. 
Lbs. 

Gain. 
Lb. 

Dry 
matter 

of 
fodder. 

Lbs. 

Dry 

matter. 
Lbs. 

Protein. 
Lbs. 

Carbhy- 

drates. 

Lbs. 

Fat. 
Lbs. 

I... 

II  .. 

IIL. 

46.8 

44.6 
44.6 

0.85 
0.76 
0.59 

2.32 
2.31 
2.35 

3.93 
6.13 

8.27 

301.95 
333.85 
436.59 

59.10 
44.95 
45.10 

210.12 

258.72 
356.40 

9.01 

6.81 
6.71 

Wolff:   "Ernahrung  der  Lanclw.  Nutzthiere,"  p.  466. 


460  MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 

Period  III.*— 29  Days  (Age:  123-152  Days). 


Per  Day  and  Head. 

Nutr. 
ratio. 

To  Produce  a  Gain  of  100  Pounds. 

Lot. 

Average 
live- 

weight. 
Lbs. 

Gain. 
Lb. 

Dry 
matter 

of 
fodder. 

Lbs. 

Dry 
matter. 

Lbs. 

Protein. 
Lbs. 

Carbhy- 

drates. 

Lbs. 

Fat. 
Lbs. 

I... 
II.. 

IIL. 

110.9 

108.1 

90.0 

1.31 

0.97 
0.85 

4.44 
3.79 
3.41 

4.18 
6.35 
7.80 

374.55 
431.31 
439.01 

69.63 
56.32 
44.55 

257.40 
332.09 
357.17 

13.64 
10.23 

7.48 

Period  IV.— 25  Days  (Age  :  152-177  Days). 


I... 
11  .. 

m.. 


143.6 

1.13 

4.65 

3.94 

465.19 

90.97 

323.29 

136.7 

1.10 

4.36 

6.12 

435.71 

58.74 

337.59 

112.0 

0.77 

3.11 

9.09 

445.28 

42.24 

368.28 

14.08 
8.91 
6.27 


Period  V.— 45  Days  (Age  :  177-222  Days). 


I... 

190.6 

1.41 

5.32 

3.64 

416.24 

85.91 

282.26 

12.87 

II .. 

189.2 

1.71 

5.40 

5.78 

347.27 

49.28 

264.66 

8.36 

IIL. 

156.5 

1.54 

5.07 

7.04 

362.34 

43.45 

286.33 

7.92 

Period  VL— 66  Days  (Age:  247-313  Days). 


I... 
II.. 
IIL. 


287.1 

1.14 

6.03 

4.05 

582.45 

110.99 

408.32 

292.9 

1.56 

5.98 

6.36 

421.19 

54.89 

328.90 

241.2 

1.07 

4.85 

8.76 

498.52 

49.17 

409.97 

16.39 

8.03 
8.14 


An  inspection  of  the  table  shows  tliat  np  to  Period  lY. 
the  fodder  having  the  narrowest  nutritive  ratio  produced 

*  The  results  of  Period  11. ,  of  42  days,  are  omitted  because  sickness 
among  the  animals  rendered  them  of  doubtful  value. 


MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING.  461 

tlie  greatest  gain  and  witli  the  least  expenditure  of  fodder. 
It  is  also  noticeable  that  in  nearly  every  case  the  animals 
ate  more  of  the  fodder  in  proportion  as  its  nutritive  ratio 
was  narrower.  In  Period  lY.  the  ration  with  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  1  :  6,  produced  a  given  gain  with  the  least  expendi- 
ture of  fodder,  although  the  gain  per  day  was  greatest  in 
Lot  I.,  owing  to  the  greater  amount  of  fodder  eaten.  In 
Periods  Y.  and  YI.  the  advantage  is  decidedl}^  with  the 
nutritive  ratio  1  :  G,  both  as  to  the  gain  made  and  the  ex- 
penditure of  fodder. 

Yery  similar  results  have  been  obtained  by  mimerous 
other  observers.  In  all  cases  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio 
during  the  first  few  months  of  feeding  has  given  the  best 
results,  while  widening  the  nutritive  ratio  as  the  animals 
grow  older  has  almost  always  been  found  advantageous. 
Thus  Heiden,"^  in  his  extensive  feeding  experiments  on 
pigs,  found  that  while  peas  and  sour  milk  formed  an  ex- 
cellent fattening  fodder  for  pigs  up  to  the  age  of  about 
four  months,  much  better  results  were  reached  after  that 
time  by  the  addition  of  potatoes  to  the  ration. 

Feeding  Standards. — The  feeding  standards  for  pigs 
given  in  the  Appendix  are  deduced  by  Wolff  from  the 
results  of  a  large  number  of  feeding  trials.  The  narrow 
nutritive  ratio  there  recommended  for  yoimg  pigs,  and  its 
gradual  widening,  are,  as  we  have  just  seen,  in  accord  with 
the  results  of  experiment ;  the  total  quantity  of  fodder 
eaten  is  most  naturally  and  simply  determined  by  the 
appetite  of  the  animal. 

Although  these  highly  nitrogenous  rations  cause  the  most 
rapid  gain  in  weight,  they  appear  of  questionable  advisa- 
bility in  so  far  as  the  animals  are  rendered  more  liable  to 

*  *'Untersuchungeii  iiber  die  zweckmassigsbe  Ernahrung  des  Schwei' 
Heft  IL,  p.  92  etseq. 


463  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

over-feeding  and  to  various  diseases  than  when  the  fodder 
is  poorer  in  protein.  For  the  sake  of  greater  secimty  it 
may  oftentimes  be  advisable  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
albuminoids  somewhat  from  that  given  in  the  standards, 
and  to  begin  at  once  with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1  :  4.5  or  1 :  5, 
widening  it  gradually  after  the  fifth  or  sixth  month  till  it 
reaches  1  :  6.5. 

Another  and  very  important  point  to  be  considered  in 
the  use  of  these  narrow  nutritive  ratios  is  that  of  cost. 
The  table  on  page  460  shows  that  although  a  given  increase 
in  weight  was  produced  with  the  least  fodder  when  that 
fodder  had  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio,  the  quantity  of  jpro- 
tein  required  was  in  every  case  greater,  while  that  of  the 
carbhydrates  was  correspondingly  less.  As  a  general  rule 
feeding-stuffs  rich  in  protein,  such  as  are  necessary  in  com- 
pounding a  ration  having  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio,  are 
rather  costly,  while  the  carbhydrates  are  comparatively 
cheap.  The  less  cost  of  a  ration  having  a  wide  nutritive 
ratio  might,  then,  render  its  use  more  economical,  in  spite 
of  the  larger  amount  of  it  required  to  produce  a  given 
increase  in  weight.  All  these  points,  as  well  as  practical 
considerations  concerning  the  most  suitable  feeding-stuffs, 
must  be  taken  account  of  in  fixing  on  the  most  suitable 
ration  for  a  particular  case,  and  they  obviously  offer  a  wide 
field  for  the  exercise  of  intelligence  and  good  judgment. 

I  5.  Inokganic  Nutrients. 

Importance. — Hitherto  we  have  considered  only  the 
demands  of  various  animals  for  the  several  organic  nutri- 
ents. The  greater  quantity  of  these  renders  their  impor- 
tance more  obvious,  but  at  the  same  time  the  mineral 
ingredients  of  feeding-stuffs  are  no  less  essential,  as  has 


MANUAL  OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  463 

already  been  pointed  out  on  pages  20  to  24.  This  is 
especially  the  case  with  growing  animals,  which  have  not 
only  to  replace  the  loss  of  these  substances  which  is  con- 
tinually taking  place,  but  also  to  provide  material  for  new 
growth,  both  of  bone  and  of  the  soft  parts  of  the  body. 

Supply  in  the  Food. — Although  all  the  mineral  in- 
gredients of  the  body  are  essential^  there  are  five  substances 
which,  on  account  of  the  large  quantity  of  them  which  is 
required,  may  be  said  to  be  more  important  than  the 
others ;  these  are  soda,  potash,  lime,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
chlorine. 

Of  these,  sodium  (the  basis  of  soda)  and  chlorine,  com- 
bined to  form  common  salt,  occupy  to  a  certain  extent  an 
exceptional  position,  as  has  already  been  explained,  and 
the  necessity  for  a  sufficient  supply  of  salt  is  generally  un- 
derstood and  acted  upon.  Potash  is  contained  in  sufficient 
quantity,  and  generally  in  excess,  in  all  ordinary  feeding- 
stuifs.  Lime  and  phosphoric  acid,  though  they  exist  in 
large  quantity  in  many  feeding-stuffs,  may  sometimes  be 
deficient,  and  these  two  substances  are  the  principal  ones 
which  need  be  considered. 

Of  the  common  fodders,  grass  and  hay,  particularly 
clover,  are  quite  rich  in  lime  but  comparatively  poor  in 
phosphoric  acid.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  straw  of 
the  legumes.  The  straw  of  the  cereals  contains  rather 
more  phosphoric  acid  than  that  of  the  legumes,  but  still 
has  an  excess  of  lime.  Koots,  being  so  watery,  have  rela- 
tively little  ash,  but  contain  more  phosphoric  acid  than 
lime.  Tlie  grains,  and  indeed  all  seeds,  are  rich  in  phos- 
phoric acid  and  poor  in  lime. 

Circumstances  under  -which  a  Lack  may  occur. — 
These  considerations  make  it  evident  that  when  an  animal 
is  fed  largely  or  exclusively  on  coarse  fodder,  particularly 


464  MANUAL   OF    CATTLF-FEEDTNO. 

on  meadow  or  clover  liay,  a  lack  of  phosphoric  acid  maj' 
occur,  while  lime  would  be  plentifully  supplied. 

K,  on  the  other  hand,  much  grain,  roots,  and  straw  or 
chaff  are  fed,  with  little  hay,  a  lack  of  lime  might  result. 
It  seems  not  unlikely  that  this  is  sometimes  the  cause  of 
the  "  bone  huno^er,"  which  causes  cattle  to  seek  out  and 
chew  bones. 

Calves  and  lambs  are  commonly  fed  on  hay  and  grain, 
and  under  these  circumstances  experience  has  shown  that 
a  lack  of  lime  or  phosphoric  acid  is  not  to  be  feared,  since 
these  two  classes  of  feeding-stuffs  supply  each  other's  defi- 
ciencies in  this  respect,  grain  containing  much  phosphoric 
acid  and  little  lime,  and  hay  much  lime  and  little  phos- 
phoric acid. 

Pigs,  on  the  other  hand,  are  frequently  fed  almost  ex- 
clusively on  grain  and  potatoes,  with  the  addition  of  sour 
milk  or  skimmed  milk.  All  these  feeding-stuffs  contain 
large  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid  and  but  little  lime  (with 
the  exception  of  milk),  and  experience  has  shown  that  the 
addition  of  a  small  amount  of  lime  to  the  feed  of  pigs, 
either  as  chalk  or  carefully  sifted  leached  wood  ashes,  is 
often  of  ficreat  value  and  is  to  be  reo;arded  almost  as  a 
necessity. 

How  Supplied. — Very  few  experiments  have  been  made 
on  the  amount  of  inorganic  nutrients  demanded  either  by 
young  or  mature  animals,  although  it  has  been  fully  proved 
that  a  lack  of  them  may  be  a  cause  of  backwardness  in 
growth,  or  even  be  fatal.  Experience  shows,  however, 
that  such  cases  ai-e  rare,  and  it  is  only  when  the  fodder 
consists  largely  of  materials  known  to  be  poor  in  lime  or 
phosphoric  acid  that  their  occurrence  is  to  be  apprehended. 

Under  such  circumstances  a  lack  of  lime  is  easily  sup- 
plied by  a  "  lick  stone  "  of  chalk  or  soft  limestone,  or  by 


MANCTAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDITTG.  4G5 

the  addition  of  chalk  or  leached  ashes  to  the  fodder.  When 
a  lack  of  phosphoric  acid  is  suspected,  the  use  of  bone  meal 
is  commonly  recommended.  The  bone  should  be  ground 
exceedingly  fine,  and  even  then  the  danger  that  it  may  con- 
tain diseased  bone  is  not  excluded,  though  the  latter  would 
probably  be  reduced  by  the  use  of  bone  from  which  glue 
has  been  made,  and  which  has  consequently  been  cooked. 

A  safer  material  than  bone  meal  is  chemically  prepared 
precipitated  phosphate  of  lime,  when  obtainable. 

Better  than  either  of  these  methods,  however,  is  the  use 
of  fodder  containing  more  phosphoric  acid.  This  may 
easily  be  brought  about  by  the  use  of  some  bye-fodder 
which  is  rich  in  this  substance,  such  as  fish  scrap  or  dried 
blood,  oil  cake,  or  the  bye-products  of  the  grains. 
30* 


CriAPTEE  YIL 

THE  CALCULATION  OF  RATIONS. 

In  the  foregoing  chapters  we  have  been  chiefly  occupied 
with  a  consideration  of  the  quantities  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents which  are  required  in  the  food  of  farm  animals  for 
various  purposes,  and  have  only  incidentally  touched  on  the 
question  of  how  these  are  to  be  supplied.  In  this  chapter 
we  shall  consider  the  manner  of  compounding  a  ration 
which  shall  contain  the  quantities  of  digestible  nutrients 
called  for  by  a  feeding  standard. 

Wlien  animals  are  pastm-ed,  or  when  they  receive  but  a 
single  kind  of  fodder,  as  good  hay,  for  example,  there  is 
evidently  no  occasion  for  the  use  of  a  feeding  standard ; 
but  when,  as  is  usually  the  case  in  stall-feeding,  the  avail- 
able coarse  fodder  is  deficient  in  protein  and  must  be  sup- 
plemented by  bye-fodder,  a  feeding  standard  can  afford 
valuable  aid  in  determining  the  proper  proportions  of  the 
various  feeding-stuffs. 

As  an  example,  we  will  take  the  feeding  of  milk  cows 
according  to  "Wolff ^s  feeding  standard,  viz. : 

Digestible  protein 3.5  pounds. 

fat 0.4       " 

"         carbhydrates 12.5       " 

Total  dry  matter 24.0       " 

Nutritive  ratio 1 :  5.4 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  467 

Suppose  that  there  is  available  for  the  daily  fodder  of 
the  cows,  per  1,000  lbs.  live-weight,  twelve  pounds  of  hay, 
six  pounds  of  oat  straw,  and  twenty  pounds  of  mangolds, 
and  that  brewers'  grains  can  be  had  cheaply.  Plainly  what 
we  have  to  do  is,  first,  to  ascertain  how  much  digestible 
matter  the  available  amounts  of  coarse  fodder  and  roots 
will  furnish,  and  second,  to  calculate  how  much  must  be 
added  to  this  ration  to  bring  it  up  to  the  feeding  standard. 

We  first  need  to  know  the  percentages  of  digestible 
protein,  carbhydrates,  and  fat  contained  in  each  of  the 
feeding-stuffs,  and  for  this  purpose  we  must  avail  our- 
selves of  the  results  obtained  by  others,  since  it  is  obvious- 
ly impracticable  to  make  direct  digestion  experiments. 
For  this  purpose  we  make  use  of  tables  of  the  composition 
and  digestibility  of  feeding-stuffs,  like  those  given  in  the 
Appendix,  in  which  the  results  of  all  available  analyses 
and  digestion  experiments  are  condensed. 

The  tables  given  in  the  Appendix  are  essentially  those  of 
Julius  Killm  ;  they  show  both  the  average  composition  and 
digestibility  of  the  common  feeding-stuffs  and  also  the  ob- 
served range  of  variation  in  these  respects.  Wolff,  in  his 
table,  gives  directly  the  average  percentage  of  digestible 
nutrients  contained  in  each  fodder,  thus  facilitating  the  cal- 
culation of  rations.  This  convenience,  however,  is  attained 
only  by  assuming  a  uniform  composition  and  digestibility 
for  each  feeding-stuff,  assumptions  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
and  as  Kiihn's  tables  show,  are  far  from  being  true,  particu- 
larly as  regards  coarse  fodder.  Moreover,  comparatively  few 
feeding-stuffs  have  been  tested  as  to  their  digestibility,  that 
of  the  others  being  only  estimated.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  most  rational  method  is  to  endeavor  to  form  an 
estimate  in  each  particular  case  of  the  amount  of  digestible 
matter  likely  to  be  present  in  the  fodder.     This  method. 


468  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

though  less  simple  than  merely  taking  the  average  per- 
centages of  digestible  ingredients  from  a  table,  is  likely  to 
give  results  corresponding  more  closely  to  the  truth,  when 
intelligently  carried  out,  and  has  also  the  advantage  of 
keeping  prominently  before  the  mind  the  approximate 
character  of  the  calculation. 

Two  facts  will  serve  to  aid  us  in  forming  a  judgment  as 
to  the  amounts  of  digestible  nutrients  which  a  given  fodder 
will  furnish :  first,  the  digestibility  of  a  feeding-stuff  de- 
pends largely  on  its  chemical  composition,  and  second,  the 
composition  of  coarse  fodder  is  quite  variable,  while  that 
of  the  concentrated  fodders  is  more  constant. 

Our  first  step,  then,  in  the  case  supposed,  is  to  form  an 
estimate  of  the  composition  of  the  hay,  straw,  and  roots 
which  are  to  form  the  basis  of  the  ration.  By  far  the  most 
satisfactory  method  of  doing  this  is  by  the  help  of  a  partial 
analysis,  and  such  analyses  of  feeding- stuffs  might  appro- 
priately be  undertaken  by  the  Experiment  Stations  now 
beginning  to  be  established  in  our  midst.  In  the  case  of 
a  coarse  fodder,  like  hay  or  straw,  determinations  of  water, 
protein,  and  crude  fibre  should  be  made ;  in  concentrated 
fodders  water  and  protein,  and  in  some  cases  fat,  should  be 
determined.  For  the  ash  and  fat  of  coarse  fodders  and  the 
ash  and  crude  fibre  of  concentrated  fodders  the  average 
numbers  may  safely  be  taken,  while  subtracting  the  smn 
of  the  protein,  crude  fibre,  fat,  and  ash  from  100  will  give 
the  approxunate  amount  of  nitrogen -free  extract.  In  this 
way  the  composition  of  the  feeding- stuffs  in  question  may 
be  determined  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  the  purpose. 

When  it  is  not  practicable  to  procure  an  analysis  of  the 
feeding-stuffs  to  be  used,  their  composition  must  be  esti- 
mated as  well  as  may  be  by  the  aid  of  the  table  in  the  Ap- 
pendix.    This  table  shows  the  extremes  of  composition 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  469 

yet  observed,  and  also  gives  the  probable  average  composi- 
tion. In  using  tlie  table,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  in 
many  cases  the  extreme  numbers  represent  the  composi- 
tion of  exceptional  samples,  and  that  the  ordinary  range 
of  composition  of  the  material  under  consideration  may  be 
considerably  less  than  appears  fi-om  the  table.  It  is  sel- 
dom that  ordinarily  good  fodders  will  reach  either  the 
maximum  or  minimum  of  any  ingredient,  and  the  judg- 
ment of  the  feeder  will  be  exercised  in  determining  how 
great  a  variation  from  the  average  is  to  be  expected  in 
the  particular  case  under  consideration.  To  this  end  he 
will  take  into  account  the  richness  of  the  soil  on  which 
the  fodder  was  grown,  its  stage  of  growth,  and,  in  short, 
all  those  influences  mentioned  in  Part  II.,  Chapters  II. 
and  III.,  as  affecting  the  composition  of  coarse  fodder  in 
particular.  Under  meadow  hay  and  clover  hay,  in  the 
table,  Wolff's  classification  of  these  feeding-stuffs  has  been 
introduced.  The  "  inferior  "  hay  corresponds  to  that  cut 
at  an  advanced  stage  of  growth,  or  damaged  by  rain,  or  to 
the  rank  hay  of  low  and  shady  places,  and  is  characterized 
by  a  large  percentage  of  crude  fibre  and  a  small  percent- 
age of  protein.  The  better  qualities  of  meadow  and  clo- 
ver hay  are  those  obtained  by  early  cutting  from  a  rich 
soil  and  careful  curing  without  loss.  The  figures  given 
by  Wolff  for  the  protein  of  these  classes  of  hay  are  consid- 
erably higher  than  those  that  have  been  found  for  American 
hay  of  apparently  equal  quality  and  containing  no  more 
crude  fibre.  This  fact  must,  of  course,  be  borne  in  mind  in 
using  Wolff's  figures. 

In  the  case  which  we  have  selected  for  an  example,  we 
will  suppose  that  by  one  or  the  other  of  the  above  meth- 
ods we  have  found  the  composition  of  our  feeding-stuffs  to 
be  approxmiately  the  following  : 


470 


MANUAL    OF    CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Hay. 
Per  cent. 

Oat  straw. 
Per  cent. 

Mangolds. 
Per  cent. 

Brewers' 

grains. 

Per  cent. 

Water 

14 
9 

3 
43 
26 

6 

100 

14 

4 

1 

33 

44 

4 

100 

88 
1 

9 

1 
1 

100 

77. 

Protein 

5 

Fat 

1 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

Crude  fibre     

11 
5 

Ash        

1 

100 

We  have  now  to  estimate  the  percentage  of  each  of 
the  ingredients  of  these  feeding-stuffs  whicli  is  digestible. 
The  mangolds,  like  all  roots  and  tubers,  we  may  assume 
to  be  wholly  digestible.  For  concentrated  fodders  we  may 
in  most  cases  assume  the  average  digestion  coefficients, 
both  because  the  digestibility  of  these  fodders  varies  less 
than  that  of  coarse  fodder,  and  because  fewer  experiments 
have  been  made  on  them.  On  brewers'  grains  there  have 
been  no  experiments,  but  our  table  gives  estimates  of  their 
digestibility,  and  these  we  accept  provisionally  in  the  absence 
of  anything  more  exact. 

Of  the  non-nitrogenous  ingredients  of  the  coarse  fodder, 
the  fat  is  present  in  so  small  quantity  that  the  assumption 
of  average  digestibility  can  introduce  no  serious  error, 
while,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  250),  the  nitrogen-free  extract 
of  a  coarse  fodder  represents  approximately  the  total  quan- 
tity of  digestible  carbhydrates  which  it  contains.  This 
fact,  though  only  true  in  a  general  way,  probably  forms  as 
accurate  a  basis  for  computations  of  digestibility  as  is  fur- 
nished by  the  use  of  digestion  coefficients,  especially  if  ac- 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


471 


count  be  taken  of  the  fact  that  the  total  digestible  carbhy- 
drates  are  likely  to  exceed  the  nitrogen-free  extract  in 
coarse  fodder  which  is  rich  in  protein,  and  to  fall  short  of 
it  in  feeding-stuffs  having  a  low  percentage  of  protein. 

There  remains  to  be  considered  only  the  protein  of  the 
coarse  fodder,  and  just  this  substance  shows  the  greatest 
variations  of  digestibility.  In  general  it  is  most  digestible 
in  those  feeding-stuffs  which  contain  most  protein  and  least 
crude  fibre,  that  is,  in  young  and  tender  fodder,  while  in 
that  which  is  old  and  woody  or  of  coarse  texture  it  is 
generally  less  digestible. 

In  the  case  above  supposed  both  the  hay  and  straw  are 
of  nearly  average  composition,  and  w^e  therefore  assume 
average  digestion  coefficients  for  their  protein,  viz.,  57  for 
that  of  the  hay  and  38  for  that  of  the  straw. 

A  simple  computation  now  shows  us  that  100  pounds  of 
each  of  our  four  feeding-stuffs  will  furnish  the  following 
amounts  of  digestible  nutrients : 


Hay. 
Lbs. 

Oat  straw. 
Lbs. 

Mangolds. 
T.hs. 

Brewers' 

grains. 

Lbs. 

5.13 

43.00 

0.93 

3.51 

33.00 

0.30 

1 

10 

4.25 

Carbhvdrates 

16.00 

Fat 

0.80 

From  these  data  we  can  easily  calculate  that  the  quanti- 
ties of  hay,  straw,  and  mangolds  which  we  have  assumed 
to  be  available  per  day  and  1,000  lbs.  live- weight,  together 
with  twenty  pounds  of  brewers'  grains,  will  furnish  the 
cows  with  the  following  quantities  of  digestible  protein, 
carbhydrates,  and  fat : 


472 


MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Total  dry 

substance. 

Lbs. 


Digestible. 


Albuminoids. 
Lbs. 


Carbhy- 

drates. 

Lbs. 


Fat. 
Lbs. 


13  lbs.  hay 

6  lbs.  oat  straw 

20  lbs.  mangolds 

20  lbs.  brewers'  grains  . . 

Total 


10.32 

0.63 

5.16 

5.16 

0.09 

1.98 

3.40 

0.30 

3.00 

4.00 

0.85 

3.30 

33.48 

1.76 

13.34 

0.11 
0.03 

0.16 
0.39 


This  ration  falls  short  of  the  standard  by  about  three-quar- 
ters of  a  poimd  of  digestible  protein.  This  must  evidently 
be  supplied  by  some  nitrogenous  bye-fodder,  such  as  oil 
cake,  hsh,  etc.  Taking  cotton-seed  meal  as  an  illustration, 
we  find  that  the  addition  of  two  and  one-half  pounds  of 
this  feeding-stuff  to  the  above  ration,  supposing  the  meal 
to  have  the  average  composition  of  the  American  article, 
and  to  be  of  average  digestibility,  will  bring  it  up  to  the 
desired  standard. 


Total  dry 

substance. 
Lbs. 

Digestible. 

Albuminoids. 
Lbs. 

Carbhy- 
drates. 
Lbs. 

Fat. 
Lb. 

Total  as  above 

2.5  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal. 

22.48 
1.96 

1.76 

0.79 

2.55 
3.50 

12.34 
0.43 

0.29 
0.13 

Total 

24.44 
24.00 

13.76 
12.50 

0.42 

Standard 

0.40 

MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING,  473 

An  exact  correspondence  with  the  standard  need  not  be 
sought,  and,  indeed,  it  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  para- 
graphs that  such  a  correspondence,  if  attained,  would  be 
more  apparent  than  real.  The  amount  of  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients  may  vary  more  than  that  of  the  protein,  and  the 
exact  quantity  of  fat,  in  particular,  is  a  matter  of  no  special 
importance,  provided  too  much  is  not  fed.  As  a  general 
rule,  it  is  advisable  to  give  too  much  rather  than  too  little 
protein,  both  to  ensure  a  sufficient  supply  of  this  important 
nutrient  and  for  the  reasons  stated  on  pp.  280-283. 

In  practice,  of  course,  regard  must  be  had  to  individual 
peculiarities  of  the  animals,  as  well  as  to  differences  in 
weight.  The  most  satisfactory  plan  would  probably  be  to 
weigh  out  each  day  a  sufficient  supply  for  all  the  cattle 
which  receive  the  ration,  and  to  distribute  this  amount 
among  the  animals  according  to  their  requirements.  As  a 
matter  of  course  the  animals  must  be  carefully  observed, 
and  their  supply  of  food  modified  according  to  the  indica- 
tions thus  obtained.  The  feeding  standards,  as  already 
said,  are  not  inflexible  rules,  to  be  blindly  followed,  but 
guides  and  indications  which  must  be  intelligently  adapted 
to  local  and  individual  circumstances. 

The  example  given  above  serves  to  illustrate  the  manner 
of  calculating  rations  in  accordance  with  a  feeding  standard. 
The  chief  points  there  given  may  be  summed  up  in  the 
following 

Rules  for  the  Calculation  op  Rations. 

1.  The  composition  of  the  fodders  used  is  either  ascer- 
tained by  analysis  or  estimated  from  the  table  of  the  com- 
position of  feeding-stuffs. 

2.  Tubers  and  roots  are  considered  to  be  wholly  di- 
gestible. 


474  MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 

3.  For  the  concentrated  fodders,  the  average  digestion 
co-efficients  are  employed  in  most  cases. 

4.  The  digestible  carbhydrates  of  the  coarse  fodders  are 
considered  to  be  equal  to  the  total  nitrogen-free  extract. 

5.  The  digestibility  of  the  protein  of  the  coarse  fodder 
is  estimated  from  the  composition  of  the  latter,  it  being 
the  greater  the  less  crude  fibre  and  the  more  protein  the 
feeding-stuff  contains. 

6.  By  multiplying  the  percentage  of  each  ingredient  of 
the  fodders  by  its  digestion  coefficient,  the  percentage  of 
digestible  matters  in  each  feeding-stuff  is  obtained,  the 
digestible  nitrogen-free  extract  and  digestible  crude  fibre 
being  added  together  as  carbhydrates. 

7.  From  the  data  thus  obtained  we  calculate,  first,  the 
quantities  of  digestible  protein,  carbhydrates,  and  fat  in 
the  amounts  of  fodder  available,  and  second,  what  addi- 
tion of  bye- fodder  must  be  made  to  them  to  bring  the 
ration  up  to  the  feeding  standard. 

8.  If  the  dry  matter  of  the  tubers  or  roots  entering  into 
the  ration  does  not  exceed  one-eighth  that  of  the  dry 
matter  of  the  remaining  fodder  no  deduction  is  made  from 
the  above  figures.  If,  however,  the  dry  matter  of  the 
roots  or  tubers  exceeds  this  proportion,  a  deduction  must 
be  made  fi'om  the  amount  of  digestible  protein  of  the 
ration  as  calculated,  in  the  proportions  indicated  on  page 
285. 

These  corrections  may  be  considered  sufficient  when  the 
coarse  fodder  consists  chiefly  of  hay,  and  ample  when  the 
addition  consists  chiefly  of  roots  and  not  of  potatoes.  On 
the  contrary  they  are  hardly  sufficient  when  the  ration 
contains  much  straw  and  potatoes.  The  depression  of  the 
digestibility,  however,  is  decidedly  diminished  when  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  the  whole  ration,  and  especially  that  of 


MANUAL    OF   CATTLE-FEEDING.  475 

the   bye-fodder,    is   a   narrow,   or   at   least   medium   one 
(1  :  5  to  6). 

9.  If  it  is  desired  to  test  tlie  correspondence  of  the 
calculated  amount  of  digestible  protein  with  that  really 
present,  the  latter  may  also  be  calculated  by  Stohmann's 
formula,  page  256 


APPENDIX. 


Of  the  tables  contained  in  the  Appendix,  I.  and  II.  are 
essentially  those  of  Julius  Klihn  {Ifentzel  <&  v.  Lengerke\ 
Landio.  Kaleiider,  1880),  and  III.  and  lY.  are  from  Wolff. 

As  regards  numerical  accuracy,  there  is  little  difference 
between  Kiihn's  tables  and  Wolff's,  the  averages  of  the 
former  being  mostly  identical  with  those  of  the  latter.  As 
will  be  seen,  Kiihn's  contain,  in  addition  to  the  average 
composition  and  digestibility,  the  range  of  variation  hither- 
to observed  in  these  respects,  and  thus  afford  a  better  nieans 
of  estimating  the  composition  of  particular  feeding-stuffs. 
(Compare  page  -167,  and  also  the  remarks  in  the  preface.) 

In  Table  I.  Wolff's  classification  of  meadow  hay  and 
clover  hay  has  been  introduced,  and  averages  of  all  availa- 
ble analyses  of  American  feeding-stuffs  have  been  given. 
For  the  latter  the  author  is  indebted  to  the  valuable  com- 
pilation of  Dr.  E.  H.  Jenkins,  published  in  the  "  Report 
of  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  "  for 
1879.  In  Table  11.  Wolff's  classification  of  hay  has  also 
been  introduced,  and  likewise  the  results  recently  obtained 
by  Wolff  in  experiments  on  the  horse  {Landw.  Jahrhuch- 
er,  yn..  Supplement  I.).  In  regard  to  the  manner  of 
using  the  tables,  compare  Chapter  YII.,  of  Fart  III. 

In  all  the  tables  "  protein  "  signifies  nitrogen  x  6.25 ; 
that  is,  it  includes  gelatin,  amides,  and  all  other  forms  of 
non-protein. 


478 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING, 


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MANUAL  OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


479 


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487 


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MANUAL    OF  CATTLE- FEEDING. 


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MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


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MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


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492 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


Table  IIL— FEEDING  STANDARDS, 
A. — Per  Day  and  Per  1,000  Lbs.  Live-weight. 


Nutritive  (Digesti- 

ble) Substances. 

a 

g 

« 

t> 

> 

Is 

•1 

•l  1 

c^ 

o-S 

S 

S 

S 

^ 

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1.  Oxen  at  rest  in  stall 

2.  Wool  sheep,  coarser  breeds 

"  "      finer  breeds.  . 

3.  Oxen  moderately  worked. 

"     heavily  worked 

4.  Horses  moderately  worked. 

''      heavily  worked... 

5.  Milk  cows 

6.  Fattening  oxen,  1  st  period 

'^      2d        " 

7.  Fattening  sheep,  1st  period 


8. 


10, 


11, 


Fattening  swine,  1st  period 
u      2d 
a       3(j         u 

Growing  cattle : 

Age.  Average  live-weight, 
months.  per  head. 

2-3       ....     150  lbs.*.... 

3-6      ....     300    ''     .... 

6-12    ....    500    "     

12-18    ....     700    "     

18-24    ....     850    "     

Growing  sheep  : 

5-6      ....       56  lbs.* 

6-8      ....       67    ''     

8-11     ....      75    "     

11-15    ....       82    ''     

15-20    ....      85    '^     

Growing  fat  pigs : 

2-3      ....       501bs.* 

3-5      ....     100    ''     

5-6      ....     125    "     

6-8      ....     170    "     

8-12    ....     250    ''     


Lbs. 

Lbs. 

17.5 

0.7 

20.0 

1.2 

22.5 

1.5 

24.0 

1.6 

26.0 

2.4 

22.5 

1.8 

25.5 

2.8 

24.0 

2.5 

27.0 

2.5 

26.0 

3.0 

25.0 

2.7 

26.0 

3.0 

25.0 

3.5 

36.0 

5.0 

31.0 

4.0 

23.5 

2.7 

22.0 

4.0 

23.4 

3.2 

24.0 

2.5 

24.0 

2.0 

24.0 

1.6 

28.0 

3.2 

25  0 

2.7 

23.0 

2.1 

22.5 

1.7 

22.0 

1.4 

42.0 

7.5 

34.0 

5.0 

31.5 

4.3 

270 

3.4 

21.0 

2.5 

13.8 
13.5 
13.5 
13  0 
12.0 

15.6 
13  3 
11.4 
10.9 
10.4 


2.0 
1.0 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 

0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 


30.0 
25.0 

23.7 
204 
16.2 


Lbs. 
8.85 
11.70 
13.15 
13.20 
16.10 
13.60 
17.00 
15.40 
18.00 
18.50 
18.10 
18.70 
18.50 

32.50 
28.00 
20.20 


19.8 
177 
16.6 
15.4 
13.9 

19.6 
16.6 
14.0 
13.0 
12.1 

37.5 
30.0 
28.0 

23.8 
18.7 


*  See  note  on  opposite  page. 


MANUAL   OF  CATTLE-FEEDING. 


493 


Table  III. — Continued. 
B. — Per  Day  and  Per  Head, 


li 

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NuTRiTivK  (Digesti- 
ble) Substances. 

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Growing  cattle  : 

Age,       Average  live-weight, 
months.              per  head. 

2-3      ....     150  lbs.* 

3-6      ....     300    "     

6-12    ....     500    "     

12-18    ....     700    "     

18-24    ....     850    "     

Growing  sheep : 

5-6      ....       561bs.* 

6-8      ....      67    ''     

8-11     ....       75    "     

11-15    ....       82    "     

15-20    ....      85    "     ...... 

Growing  fat  swine  : 

2-3      ....       50  lbs.* 

3-5      ....     100    ''     

5-6      ....     125    "     

6-8      ....     170    ''     

8-12    ....     250    "     

Lbs. 

3.3 

7.0 

12.0 

16.8 

20.4 

1.6 
1.7 

1.7 
1.8 
1.9 

2.1 
3.4 
3.9 
4.6 
5.2 

Lbs. 

0.6 
1.0 
1.3 
1.4 
1.4 

0.18 
0.17 
0.16 
0.14 
0.12 

0.38 
0.50 
0.54 
0.58 
0.62 

Lbs. 

2.1 

4.1 

6.8 

9.1 

10.3 

0.87 
0.85 
0.85 
0.89 

0.88 

Lbs. 

0.30 
0.30 
0.30 
0.28 
0.26 

0.045 
0.040 
0.037 
0.032 
0.025 

Lbs. 

3.00 

5.40 

8.40 

10.78 

11.96 

1.095 
1.060 
1.047 
1.062 
1.047 

1.88 
3.00 
3.50 
4.05 
4.67 

1 

4.7 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 

5.5 
5.5 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 

1.50 
2.50 
2.96 
3.47 
4.05 

4.0 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 
6.5 

*  The  German  pound  is  equal  to  1  Vio  lb.  avoirdupois.  The  above  weights  are  therefore 
to  be  increased  i/m  to  represent  our  weights.  For  practical  purposes,  however,  this 
reduction  will  be  in  most  cases  unnecessary,  as  tlie  weights  are  but  relative  and  approxi- 
mate. The  quantities  of  nutrients  calculated  per  1,000  pounds  live-weight,  of  course, 
need  no  reduction,  being  simply  relative,  and  the  aame  is  true  to  a  certain  extent  of  the 
quantities  per  head. 


494 


MANUAL   OF   CATTLE-FEEDING. 


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INDEX. 


Abomasum,  57 

Accidental  salts,  essential  and,  23 

Action  of  bile  on  the  food,  G3 

pancreatic  juice  on  carbhydratea,  63 

fats,  63 
ptyalin  on  starch,  56 
saliva  on  the  food,  56 
trypsin  on  albuminoids,  63 
Acd,  carbonic,  effect  of  work  on  excretion  of,  206 
excretion  of,  by  young  animals,  440 
glycocholic,  62 
hippuric,  84,  93 

formed  from  albuminoids,  87 
hyoglycocholic,  62 
lactic,  13 
metapectic,  46 
muriatic,  59 

phosphoric,  excretion  of,  by  herbivora,  258 
during  work,  208 
sarkolactic,  13 

sulphuric,  excretion  of,  during  work,  208 
taurocholic,  62 
uric,  93 
Advantages  of  ensilage,  317 
^sophogean  demi  canal,  57 
Age  of  animals,  effect  of,  on  digestion,  270 
Agriculture,  objects  of,  1 
Albumin,  animal,  16 

properties  of,  16 
vegetable,  27 


498  INDEX. 

Albuminoids,  action  of  trypsin  on,  63 
animal,  15 

composition  of,  17 
decompositions  of,  in  body,  87 
determination  of,  48 
effect  of  gastric  juice  on,  59 

on  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder,  275 
errors  in  determination  of,  49 
formation  of  fat  from,  87,  171 
gain  of  fat  aided  by,  178 
importance  of,  33 
of  milk,  sources  of,  418 
vegetable,  2G 

comparative  value  in  nutrition,  31 
occurrence,  33 
Alimentary  canal,  55 
Alkaloids,  35 

of  lupines,  35,  310,  343 
Amides,  35 

by  action  of  trypsin,  63,  163 
decomposed  in  body,  159 
determination  of,  49 
digestibility  of,  257 
feeding  standards  affected  by,  371 
functions  of,  in  plant,  36 
indications  of  nutritive  value  of,  163 
in  malt  sprouts,  341 
nutritive  value  of,  158 
Amido-acids,  35 
Amines,  35 
Ammonia,  excretion  of,  in  respiration,  101 

salts  in  plants,  34 
Amount  of  drink,  238 

protein  necessary  to  sustain  life,  132 
Analysis,  fodder,  48 
Animal  albuminoids,  15 

composition  of,  17 
occurrence  of,  15 
properties  of,  15 
varieties  of,  15 
body,  composition  of,  5,  365 


INDEX.  499 

Animal  body,  composition  of  dry  matter  of,  10 
inorganic  matters  of,  20 
nitrogenous  constituents  of,  14 
non-nitrogenous  constituents  of,  7 
casein,  17 

fats,  composition  of,  12 
heat,  83,  229 

nutrition,  general  laws  of,  3,  5 
products  as  fodder,  349 
Anterior  aorta,  78 
Aorta,  78 

anterior,  78 
posterior,  78 
Aqueous  extract  as  measure  of  digestibility,  253 
Arteries,  78 
Artery,  pulmonary,  77 
Artichokes,  361 
Ash,  determination  of,  in  fodders,  50 

digestibility  of,  258 
Asparagin,  35 

a  nutrient,  1 63 
functions  of,  in  plants,  36 
nearly  equivalent  to  protein,  166 
nutritive  action  of,  165 
Auricles  of  heart,  77 
Average  composition  of  nitrogenous  constituents  of  body,  19 

Barley,  334 

digestibility  of,  335 
Best  time  for  cutting  clover,  303 

hay,  293 
Bile,  61 

action  of,  on  food,  62 
Bilirubin,  62 
Biliverdin,  62 

Bleeding,  influence  of,  in  fattening,  200 
Blood,  74 

amount  of  hfemoglobin  in,  200 
coagulation  of,  76 
corpuscles,  74 
fibrin,  16,  76 


500  INDEX. 

Blood  plasma,  74,  75 

composition  of,  75 

serum,  76 

sugar  in,  13,  76 

vessels  of  intestines,  68 
Body,  components  of,  5,  365 

materials  of,  constantly  decomposed,  2 
Body-fat,  influence  of,  on  production  of  fat,  198 
protected  by  fat  of  food,  187 

protein  of  food,  188 
Bokhara  clover,  312 
Bones,  proportion  of,  in  body,  6 
Bran,  338 

composition  of,  339 

digestibility  of,  339 
Breed,  influence  of,  on  digestion,  269 
Brewers'  grains,  339 
Brown  hay,  317,  318 
Buckwheat,  335 

Butter,  influence  of  fodder  on  quality  of,  430 
Butter-fat,  composition  of,  430 
Bye-fodders,  nitrogenous,  effect  of,   on  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder, 

277 
Bye-products  of  the  grains,  337 
from  milk,  354 

CALCUTiATiON  of  rations,  466 

rules  for,  473 
Calves,  feeding,  442 

before  weaning,  442 
nutritive  ratio,  442 
substitutes  for  milk,  445 
sugar  in  place  of  fat,  444 
food  of,  after  weaning,  446 
weaning  of,  446 
Capillaries,  78 
Carbhydrates,  38 

act  analogously  to  fat,  143 

action  of  pancreatic  juice  on,  63 

alone  do  not  decrease  protein  consumption,  137 

and  fat,  difference  in  action  of,  192 


INDEX.  601 

Carbhydrates  and  fat,  relative  effect  of,  194 
decompositions  of,  in  body,  88 
decrease  protein  consumption,  150 
effect  of,  on  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder,  280 

nitrogen- free  extract,  282 
protein,  280 
equivalent  to  fat,  157 
fat  from,  173,  394 

conclusions,  186 
experiments  on  dogs,  183 

ruminants,  174 
swine,  180 
sources  of  uncertainty,  184 
feeding  with,  alone,  136 

protein  and,  143,  191 
may  cause  long-continued  gain  of  flesh,  155 
may  be  oxidized  instead  of  fat,  192 
mutual  relations  of,  44 
Carbon,  excretion  of,  103 

Carbonic  acid,  effect  of  work  on  excretion  of,  206 
excretion  of,  103 

excretion  of,  by  young  animals,  440 
in  venous  blood,  81 
removal  from  blood  in  lungs,  82 
Casein,  animal,  17,  417 
gluten-,  28 


composition  of,  28 
Cattle,  fattening,  392 

addition  of  oil  to  fodder  of,  398 
feeding  standard  for,  395 
preliminary  feeding  of,  396 
first  period,  397 
second  period,  397 
third  period,  397 
Causes  of  resorption,  69 
Cellulose,  38 

composition  of,  39 
determination  of,  40,  50 
digestibility  of,  40 
how  digested,  64 


502  INDEX. 

Cellulose,  properties  of,  38 

starch-,  43 
Cereals,  330 

straw  of,  322 
Chaff,  327 

Changes  in  nutrients  during  digestion,  64 
Chemical  changes  in  ensilage,  317 

production  of,  240 
Chyme,  60 
Circulation  of  blood,  74 

pulmonary,  80 
systemic,  80 
Circulatory  protein,  123,  125 

Circumstances  under  which  a  lack  of  inorganic  nutrients  may  occur,  463 
Clover  and  clover  hay,  302 
Alsike,  31 1 
Bokhara,  312 

hay,  best  time  for  cutting,  303 
effect  of  wetting  on,  305 
losses  in  curing,  304 
period  of  growth  of,  302 
incarnate,  312 
stone,  312 
Swedish,  311 
sweet,  312 
white,  311 
Coagulation  of  blood,  76 
Coarse  fodder,  circumstances  affecting  digestibility  of,  259 

digestibility  of,  by  different  kinds  of  animals,  267 
digestibility  of  nutrients  of,  245 
effect  on  digestibility  of,  of  albuminoids,  275 
carbhydrates,  280 
concentrated  fodders,  273 
drying,  260 
fat,  286 

methods  of  preparing,  265 
nitrogenous  bye-fodders,  277 
period  of  growth,  263 
quantity  eaten,  259 
roots,  283 
storing,  262 


INDEX.  503 

Coarse  fodder,  effect  on  digestibility  of,  of  the  grains,  278 

Coarse  fodders,  the,  288 

Cob,  maize,  328 

Colostrum,  416 

Comparative  value  of  vegetable  albuminoids,  31 

Compensation  between  crude  fibre  and  nitrogen-free  extract,  250 

Components  of  body,  365 

nitrogenous,  14 
^  non-nitrogenous,  7 

Concentrated  fodder,  saving  of  work  by,  228 
Concentrated  fodders,  330 

determination  of  digestibility  of,  273 
digestibility  of,  273 
Conditions  iDfluencing  production  of  fat,  198 

of  muscular  exertion,  217 
Conduction  and  radiation  of  heat  from  skin,  231 
Conglutin,  28 
Consumption  of  food  by  young  animals,  437 

inorganic  nutrients  by  young  animals,  441 
protein,  121 
Cooking  fodder,  239 

effect  of  on  digestibility,  265 
Corn  meal,  exclusive  feeding  with,  58,  229,  378 
Corpuscles,  blood,  74 
Cotton-seed  cake,  347 

digestibility  of,  347 
Course  of  nutrients  after  resorption,  71 
Crude  fat,  50 

digestibility  of,  254 
Crude  IJbre,  40 

compensation  between  nitrogen-free  extract  and,  250 
composition  of  digestible  portion  of,  247 
determination  of,  40,  50 
digestibility  of,  247 
effect  of  starch  on  digestibility  of,  281 
Crude  protein,  48 

digestibility  of,  254 

formulae  for  digestibility  of,  255 

Decompositions  of  albuminoids  in  body,  87 
carbhydrates  in  body,  88 


504  INDEX. 

Decompositions  of  fat  in  body.  88 

nutrients  in  body,  87 
Decrease  of  protein  consumption  by  fat,  138 
Determination  of  nutritive  effect  of  a  ration,  109 
Dextrine,  43 
Diaphragm,  80 

Diastase  in  pancreatic  juice,  63 
Digestibility,  243 

aqueous  extract  as  measure  of,  253  , 

determination  of,  104 
effect  of  ensilage  on,  320 
fat  on,  286 
nutritive  ratio  on,  281 
salt  on,  287 
of  ash,  257 
cellulose,  40 

coarse  fodder,  circumstances  affecting,  259 
effect  of  albuminoids  on,  275 
carbhydrates  on,  280 
concentrated  fodders  on,  273 
drying  on,  260 
fat  on,  286 
grains  on,  278 

methods  of  preparing  on,  265 
nitrogenous  bye-fodders  on,  277 
period  of  growth  on,  263 
quantity  on,  259 
roots  on,  283 
storing  on,  262 
concentrated  fodders,  273 

determination  of,  273 
crude  fat,  108,  254 
crude  fibre,  247 

effect  of  carbhydrates  on,  281 
crude  protein,  254 

formulas  for,  255 
fat,  108,  254 
fodder  by  different  kinds  of  animals,  267 

estimation  of,  470 
nitrogen-free  extract,  249 

effect  of  carbhydrates  on,  282 


INDEX.  505 

Digestibility  of  non-protein,  257 

nutrients  of  coarse  fodder,  245 
pectin,  361 
phosphoric  acid,  257 
protein,  effect  of  carbhydrates  on,  281 
Weende  experiments  on,  246 
Digestion,  54 

ease  of,  65 

effect  of  age  of  animals  on,  270  > 

breed  of  animals  on,  269 
individuality  on,  270 
work  on,  271 
experiments,  104 

preparatory  feeding  in,  105 
source  of  error  in,  106 
gastric,  59 

influence  of  proportions  of  nutrients  on,  65 
intestinal,  61 
time  occupied  in,  105 
Distillers'  grains,  340 

use  of,  340 
Distribution  of  oxygen  through  body,  83 
Dried  blood,  353 

comparative  value  of  protein  of,  354 
digestibility  of,  353 
Drink,  amount  of,  238 
Drinking,  influence  of,  on  fat  production,  198 

protein  consumption,  135 
Dry  matter  of  animal  body,  composition  of,  10 

milk,  influence  of  fodder  on  composition  of,  427 
percentage  of,  427 
Drying,  effect  of,  on  digestibility,  260 
Duct,  thoracic,  68 

Early-cut  hay,  non-protein  in,  299 
Early  or  late  cutting  of  hay,  293 
Ease  of  digestion,  65 
Energy,  storing  up  of,  in  body,  219 
Ensilage,  291,  316 

advantages  of,  317 

chemical  changes  in,  317 
22 


.^06         •  INDEX. 

Ensilage,  effect  of,  on  digestibility,  320 
of  maize,  316 
quality  of  product,  320 
Epithelium  of  intestiues,  07 
Equilibrium  with  food  supply  soon  established,  130 

rapidity  with  which  established,  133 
Equivalents,  respiration,  157 
Errors  in  determination  of  albuminoids,  48 

sources  of,  in  digestion  experiments,  106 
Esparsette,  313 

Essantial  and  accidental  salts,  22 

Evaporation  of  water,  influence  of,  on  production  of  heat,  234 
Exchange  of  gases  in  lungs,  81 
Exclusive  meal  feeding,  58,  229,  378 

sufficiency  of,  380 
Excrements,  composition  of  solid,  73 
Excretion,  93 

effects  of  muscular  exertion  on,  204 
of  ammonia  in  respiration,  101 
carbon,  103 
carbonic  acid  by  young  animals,  440 

influence  of  work  on,  206 
gaseous  nitrogen,  94 

during  work,  208 
hydrogen,  103 
nitrogen,  94 

earlier  experiments  on,  94 
experiments  on  domestic  animals,  97 
influence  of  work  on,  204 
Voit's  experiments  on,  95 
phosphoric  acid  by  herbivora,  258 
during  work,  208 
sulphuric  acid  during  work,  208 
water,  103 

during  work,  207 
Expiration,  81 
Extract,  nitrogen-free,  51 

composition  of  digestible  portion  of,  252 

undigested  portion  of,  253 
determination  of,  51 


INDEX.  507 

F^CES,  73 

Fat  alone  does  not  decrease  protein  conBumption,  136 
carbhydrates  equivalent  to,  107 

may  be  oxidized  instead  of,  193 
conditions  influencing  production  of,  198 
consumption,  influence  of  work  on,  307 
decomposition  of,  in  body,  88 
decreases  protein  consumption,  138 
determination  of,  50 

production  of,  111 
difference  in  action  of  carbbydrates  and,  192 
digestibility  of,  108,  354 
does  not  replace  water  in  fattening,  8 
effect  of,  on  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder,  386 

quantity  of  milk,  435 
feeding  with,  alone,  136,  187 

protein  and,  137,  189 
formation  of,  169 
formed  from  albuminoids,  87,  171 
from  carbhydrates,  173 

conclusions,  186 
experiments  on  dogs,  183 

ruminants,  174 
swine,  180 
in  fattening,  394 
sources  of  uncertainty,  184 
gain  of,  aided  by  albuminoids,  178 
gain  of,  may  accompany  loss  of  flesh,  188 
importance  of,  for  horses,  413 

"working  animals,  408 
may  cause  long  continued  gain  of  flesh,  141 
occurrence  of,  in  body,  11 
of  body,  influence  of,  on  production  of  fat,  198 

protein  consumption,  133 
protected  by  protein,  188 
of  food  a  source  of  fat,  169 

protected  by  protein,  189 
protects  body  fat,  187 
of  milk,  source  of,  418 
production,  influence  of  body-fat  on,  198 

excessive  drinking  on,  198,  338 


508  INDEX. 

Fat  production,  influence  of  muscular  exertion  on,  199,  326 
oxygen  taken  up  on,  199 
temperature  on,  198,  237 
production  of,  by  young  animals,  440 
proportion  of,  in  body,  6,  13 
relative  effect  of  carbhydrates  and,  194 
sources  of,  169 
Fats,  action  of  pancreatic  juice  on,  63 
composition  of  animal,  12 
vegetable,  composition  of,  46 
occurrence  of,  46 
value  of,  47 
Fattening,  196,  392 

cattle,  392 

addition  of  oil  to  fodder  of,  398 
composition  of  increase  of  live-weight  in,  9,  176 
influence  of  bleeding  on,  200 
lambs,  455 

preparation  of  fodder  in,  399 
sheep,  399 
swine,  404 
Feeding  calves,  442 

farm  animals,  3,  365 
for  maintenance,  374 

oxen,  374 
sheep,  383 
growing  animals,  436 
horses,  409 

influence  of,  on  growth  of  wool,  387 
lambs,  448 
milk  cows,  414 
oxen,  374 
pigs,  408,  458 
sheep,  383 

standard  for  maintenance  of  oxen,  376 
sheep,  387 
milk  cows.  431,  432 

variations  from,  432 
standards,  365,  366 

advantage  of,  367,  378 
affected  by  amides,  371 


INDEX.  609 

Feeding  standards  for  fattening  cattle,  395 

sheep,  400 
swine,  404 
horses,  413 
pigs,  461 

working  oxen,  408 
limitations  of,  369 
Feeding-stuffs,  composition  and  digestibility  of,  3,  243 

definition,  25 
Feeding  with  carbhydrates  alone,  186 
fat  alone,  136,  187 
protein  alone,  128,  188 

and  carbhydrates,  143,  191 
fat,  137,  189 
Fibrin,  blood-,  16 
flesh-,  16 
gluten-,  29 
vegetable,  29 

composition  of,  29 
Fibrinogen,  76 

Fick  &  Wislicenus'  experiment,  216 
Fish  guano,  or  fish  scrap,  351 

digestibility  of,  352 
manurial  value  of,  352 
Flesh,  composition  of,  110 

determination  of  gain  or  loss  of,  102,  109 
Flesh-fibrin,  16 
Flesh,  gain  of,  caused  by  protein,  148 

fat  may  accompany  loss  of,  188 
laws  of  formation  of,  110 
long-continued  gain  of,  141 
meal,  349 

comparative  value  of  protein  of,  351 
digestibility  of,  350 
proportion  of,  in  body,  6 
Fluid,  intestinal,  64 
Fluids,  quantity  of,  in  body,  5 
Fodder  analysis,  48 
cooking,  339 

effect  of,  on  digestibility,  265 
digestibility  of,  by  different  kinds  of  animals,  267 


510  INDEX. 

Fodder,  effect  of,  in  maintaining  flow  of  milk,  424 

influence  of,  on  composition  of  dry  matter  of  milk,  427 
percentage  of  dry  matter  in  milk,  437 
quality  of  butter,  430 

milk,  427 
quantity  of  milk,  419 
methods  of  preparing,  effect  of,  on  digestibility,  365 
preparation  of,  in  fattening,  399 
Fodders,  coarse,  288 

components  of,  25 
concentrated,  330 
definition  of,  25 

estimation  of  composition  of,  468 
digestibility  of,  470 
Food  supply,  equilibrium  soon  established  with,  130 
Force,  storing  up  of,  in  body,  319 
value  of  nutrients,  315 

Gain  of  fat  aided  by  albuminoids,  178 

may  accompany  loss  of  flesh,  188 
flesh,  carbhydrates  may  cause  long-continued,  155 
caused  by  protein,  148 
fat  may  cause  long-continued,  141 
Gain  or  loss  of  flesh,  determination  of,  103 
Gall,  61 

bladder,  63 
Gases,  exchange  of,  in  lungs,  81 
Gastric  digestion,  59 
juice,  59 

action  of,  on  albuminoids,  59 
Gelatigenous  substances,  18 

composition  of,  18 
Gelatin,  nutritive  value  of,  163 
Glands,  Lieberkiihn's,  64 
mesenteric,  68 
salivary,  55 
Gliadin,  30 
Gluten-casein,  28 
Gluten-fibrin,  29 
Gluten,  wheat,  28 
Glycocholic  acid,  63 


INDEX.  511 

Glycogen,  14,  81 

sources  of,  91,  92 
Glycogenic  function  of  liver,  89 
Golden  millet,  314 

composition  of,  314 
digestibility  of,  315 
Grains,  the,  330 

bye-products  of,  337 

composition  of,  331 

effect  of,  on  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder,  278 

value  of,  330 

variations  in  composition  of,  331 
Growing  animals,  feeding,  436 
Gullet,  56 
Gums,  the,  44 

HEMOGLOBIN,  75 

amount  of,  in  blood,  200 
influence  of,  on  production  of  fat,  199,  200 
Hay,  clover  (see  clover  hay),  302 
meadow,  288 

damage  to  by  rain,  291 
early  or  late  cutting  of,  293 
method  of  curing,  291 
non-protein  in,  298 

early  cut,  299 
stage  of  growth  of,  292 
supply  of  plant  food  to,  289 
variable  composition  of,  288 
Heart,  the,  77 

auricles  of,  77 
ventricles  of,  77 
Heat,  animal,  83,  230 

applications  of,  in  body,  231 

expenditure  of,  in  warming  ingesta,  236 

influence  of  evaporation  of  water  on  production  of,  234 

surrounding  temperature  in  production  of,  232 
of  combustion,  Frankland's  determinations,  216,  217 

of  protein,  217 
production  of,  229 
vital,  83,  230 


512  INDEX. 

Heat,  vital,  how  regulated,  230 

Hepatic  vein,  68,  79 

Herbivora,  excretion  of  phosphoric  acid  by,  258 

Hippuric  acid,  84 

formed  from  albuminoids,  87 
Horny  matters,  18 

composition  of,  18 
Horses,  digestibility  of  fodder  by,  268 
feeding  of,  409 

digestible  nutrients,  410 
Hohenheim  experiments  on,  410 
importance  of  fat,  413 
kinds  of  feeding-stuffs,  413 
quantity  of  fodder,  409,  410 
feeding  standards  for,  412 
Hungarian  grass,  314 

composition  of,  314 
digestibility  of,  315 
Hunger,  protein  consumption  during,  123 
Hydrogen,  excretion  of,  103 
Hyoglycocholic  acid,  62 

Incarnate  clover,  312 

Increase  of  live-weight  in  fattening,  composition  of,  9,  176 

Indian  corn,  335 

Individual  peculiarities,  effect  of,  on  digestion,  270 

Ingredients  of  milk,  sources  of,  418 

Inorganic  matters  of  body,  20 

amount  of,  20 

need  of  continual  supply  of,  20,462 
nutrients,  47,  462 

circumstances  under  which  a  lack  of,  may  occur. 

463 
consumption  of,  by  young  animals,  441 
how  supplied,  464 
importance  of,  462 
in  fodder  of  milk  cows,  434 
supply  of,  in  fodder,  463 
Inosite,  14 
Inspiration,  81 
Insalivation,  55 


INDEX.  513 

Internal  organs,  muscular  work  of,  226 

work,  226 
Intestinal  fluid,  64 

digestion,  61 
Intestines,  61 

blood-vessels  of,  68 

contents  of  stomach  and,  6 

epithelium  of,  67 

length  of,  61 

peristaltic  motion  of,  61 
Investigation,  methods  of,  104 

Juice,  gastric,  59 

action  of,  on  albuminoids,  59 
pancreatic,  63 

action  of,  on  albuminoids,  63 
carbhydrates,  63 
fats,  63 
ferments  of,  63 

Kidneys,  93 
Kidney-vetch,  312 

Lacteals,  68 
Lactic  acid,  13 
Lactose,  417 

Lambs,  composition  of  gain  of  live-weight  by,  454 
fattening,  455 

Stohmann's  experiments,  456 
Wolff's  experiments,  455 
feeding,  448 

effect  of  change  of  fodder,  449 
for  maintenance,  448 

feeding  standard,  450 
Weiske's  experiments,  451 
Wolff's  experiments,  448 
quality  of  fodder,  448 
Laws  of  the  formation  of  flesh,  120 
Leaves,  322 
Legumes,  301,  342 

digestibility  of,  343 
22* 


514  INDEX. 

Legumes,  non-protein  in,  313 
pods  of,  827 
straw  of,  326 

composition  and  digestibility  of,  326 
uses  of,  344 
Legumin,  28 
Leucin,  63 

Lieberkiihn's  glands,  64 
Lignin,  39 
Linseed  cake,  347 

digestibility  of,  347 
Liver,  61 

glycogenic  function  of,  89 
Live-weight,  composition  of  gain  of,  by  lambs,  455 

increase  of,  in  fattening,  9,  176 
uncertain  indications  of,  115 
variations  of,  117 
Lobules,  ultimate,  of  lungs,  "81 
Lucerne,  307 

digestibility  of,  307 
Lungs,  80 

exchange  of  gases  in,  81 
ultimate  lobules  of,  81 
Lung  vesicles,  81 
Lupines,  310,  343 

alkaloids  of,  35,  310,  343 
poisonous  effects  of,  311 
Lymph,  68 

Maintenance,  feeding  for,  374 

lambs  for,  448 
oxen  for,  374 
sheep  for,  383 
Maize,  385 

average  composition  of  American,  336 
range  of  composition  of  American,  336 
digestibility  of,  337 
cob,  328 
fodder,  315 

composition  of,  315 
digestibility  of,  316 


INDEX. 

Maize,  fodder,  ensilage  of,  316 

meal,  exclusive  feeding  with,  378 

sufiBLciency  of  exclusive  feeding  with,  380 
Malt  sprouts,  341 

amides  in,  342 
Manifolds,  57 

Manurial  value  of  fish  guano,  353 
Mastication,  55 
Meadow  hay  (see  hay),  288 
Meal  feeding,  exclusive,  58,  229,  378 
Medick,  312 
Mesenteric  glands,  68 
Metapectic  acid,  46 
Methods  of  investigation,  104 
Milk,  bye-products  from,  355 
composition  of,  417 

effect  of  fodder  in  maintaining  flow  of,  424 
influence  of  fodder  on  percentage  of  dry  matter  in,  427 
composition  of  dry  matter  of,  427 
formation  of,  416 
quality  of,  426 

influenced  by  fodder,  427 

individual  peculiarities,  427 
other  conditions,  430 
quantity  of,  419 

effect  of  fat  on,  425 
influence  of  fodder  on,  419 

period  of  lactation  on,  419 
Kiihn's  experiments,  432 
influence  of  supply  of  protein  on,  420 
Wolff's  experiments,  421 
sources  of  ingredients  of.  418 
substitutes  for,  445 
Milk  cistern,  415 
Milk-cows,  feeding,  414 

feeding  standard  for,  431,  432 
inorganic  nutrients  in  fodder  of,  434 
nutritive  ratio  in  fodder  of,  431 
variations  from  feeding  standard  for,  433 
Milk-fat,  sources  of,  174,  418 
■Milk-glands,  414 


515 


516  INDEX. 

Milk-globules,  416 
Milk  production,  414 

with  insufficient  protein,  425 
l\Iilk- sugar,  38,  417 

source  of,  418 
Miller's  system  of  exclusive  meal  feeding,  58,  229,  378 
Millet,  golden,  314 

composition  of,  314 
digestibility  of,  315 
Mucedin,  30 
Muriatic  acid,  59 

Muscles,  proportion  of,  in  body,  5 
Muscular  exertion,  conditions  of,  217 

effects  of,  on  excretion,  204 
fat  consumption  increased  by,  206 
influence  of,  on  production  of  fat,  199 
Kellner's  experiments  on,  209 
Noyes's  experiments  on,  212 
Pettenkofer  &  Voit's  experiments  on,  206 
products  of,  218 

protein  consumption  not  increased^  by,  204,  206 
theory  of,  224 
Voit's  experiments  on,  204 
power,  increased  oxidation  of  source  of,  not  necessary,  213 

source  of,  213 
work  of  internal  organs,  226 
jiutual  relations  of  the  carbhydrates,  44 

Nitrates  in  plants,  34 

Nitrites  in  plants,  34  , 

Nitrogen  all  excreted  in  urine,  94 

earlier  experiments  on  excretion  of,  94 
excretion  of,  94 

as  gas,  94 

during  work,  208 
experiments  on  domestic  animals,  97 
Voit's  experiments  on,  95 
influence  of  work  on  excretion  of,  204 
/itrogen-free  extract,  51 

compensation  between  crude  fibre  and,  250 
composition  of  digestible  portion  of,  252 


INDEX.  517 

Nitrogen-free  extract,  composition  of  undigested  portion  of,  253 
determination  of,  51 
digestibility  of,  249 

effect  of  carbhydrates  on  digestibility  of,  282 
Nitrogenous  constituents  of  body,  14 

composition  of,  19 
plants  other  than  albuminoids,  34 
Non-nitrogenous  constituents  of  body,  7 
Non-protein,  257 

digestibility  of,  257 

influence  of,  on  feeding  standards,  371 

in  hay,  298 

early-cut  hay,  299 
legumes,  313 
tubers  and  roots,  357 
Nutrients,  25,  365 

changes  in,  during  digestion,  64 
classification  of,  26 
course  of,  after  resorption,  71 
decompositions  of,  in  body,  87 
force  value  of,  215 
inorganic,  47,  462 
nitrogenous,  26 
non-nitrogenous,  38 
Nutrition,  animal,  general  laws  of,  3,  5 

of  young  animals,  436 
Nutritive  action  of  asparagin,  165 
ratio,  52 

effect  of,  on  digestibility,  281 
value  of  amides,  158 

indications  of,  162 
gelatin,  163 

Oats,  333 

digestibility  of,  334 
Oil,  addition  of,  to  fodder  in  fattening,  398 
Oil  cake,  47,  345 

composition  of,  346 

digestibility  of,  347 

uses  of,  348 
Oil  seeds,  345 


518  INDEX. 

Omasum,  57 

Organized  protein,  123,  125 

Organs  and  parts,  proportions  of,  in  body,  5 

Oxen,  feeding  for  maintenance,  374 

feeding  standard,  376 
Oxidations  in  body  gradual,  93 
Oxygen,  distribution  of,  through  body,  83 

influence  of  protein  on  storing  up  of,  222 

quantity  taken  up  on  production  of  fat,  199 
quantity  of,  taken  up  by  blood,  84 
storing  up  of,  85,  220 

relations  to  storing  up  of  energy,  220 
Oxyhaemoglobiu ,  75 

Palm-nut  cake,  347 

digestibility  of,  348 

effect  of,  on  quality  of  milk,  429 
Pancreas,  63 
Pancreatic  juice,  63 

action  of,  on  albuminoids,  63 
carbhydrates,  63 
fats,  63 

ferments  of,  63 
Pasture  grass,  288,  298 
Paunch,  56 
Pectic  acid,  45 
Pectin,  45 

digestibility  of,  361 
Pectin  substances,  the,  45 
Pectose,  45 
Pectosic  acid,  45 
Pepsin,  59 
Peptones,  59 

in  plants,  34 
Pericardium,  77 
Peristaltic  motion,  61 
Phenomena  of  resorption,  68 
Phosphoric  acid,  digestibility  of,  257 

excretion  of,  by  herbivora,  258 
during  work,  208 
Pigs,  feeding  of,  458 


INDEX.  519 

Pigs,  feeding  of,  feeding  standards,  461 
nutritive  ratio,  459 
variations  in  fodder,  458 
Plasma,  blood,  74,  75 

composition  of,  75 
Pods  of  legumes,  327 
Portal  vein,  68,  79 
Posterior  aorta,  78 
Potatoes,  359 

composition  of,  359 
non-protein  in,  359 
Production  of  chemical  changes,  240 

fat  by  young  animals,  440 
conditions  influencing,  198 
determination  of.  111 
influenced  by  excessive  drinking,  198 
fat  of  body,  198 
muscular  exertion,  199 
oxygen  taken  up,  199 
temperature,  198 
flesh,  119 

by  young  animals,  439 
determination  of,  109 
heat,  229 

influence  of  evaporation  of  water  on,  234 
temperature  on,  233 
milk,  414 

wool,  influence  of  feeding  on,  387 
work,  202 
Products  of  muscular  action,  218 
Protein,  amount  of,  necessary  to  sustain  life,  132 
asparagin  nearly  equivalent  to,  166 
circulatory,  123,  125 

comparative  value  of  animal  and  vegetable,  351,  354 
digestibility  of,  254 
effect  of  carbhyd  rates  on  digestibility  of,  280 

starch  on  digestibility  of,  281 
feeding  with,  alone,  128,  188 

carbhydrates  and,  143,  191 
fat  and,  137,  189 
formulae  for  digestibility  of,  255 


520  INDEX. 

Protein,  glycogen  from,  91,  92 

heat  of  combustion  of,  217 

importance  of,  in  fattening,  399 

influence  of  supply  of,  on  quantity  of  milk,  420 

on  storing  up  of  oxygen,  223 
need  of,  by  working  animals,  407 
organized,  123,  125 
protects  fat  of  body,  188 

food,  189  , 

vegetable,  26 

varieties,  27 
Protein  consumption,  121 

decreased  by  carbhydrates,  150 

fat,  138 
dependent  on  supply,  128,  137,  144 
during  hunger,  123 
effect  of  salt  on,  134 

stimulants  on,  136 
water  on,  135 
factors  determining,  124 
in  young  animals,  439 
not  increased  by  work,  204,  206 
Ptyalin,  55 

action  of,  on  starch,  56 
Pulmonary  artery,  77 

circulation,  80 
veins,  77 
Pylorus,  61 

Quality  of  milk,  426 

Quantity  of  fodder,  effect  of,  on  digestibility,  459 

fattening,  167 
milk,  419 

Radiation  and  conduction  of  heat  from  skin,  231 
Ratio,  nutritive,  59 
Ration,  26 

determination  of  nutritive  effect  of,  109 
Rations,  calculation  of,  466 

rules  for  calculation  of,  473 


INDEX.  S21 


Resorption,  66 

causes  of,  69 

course  of  nutrients  after,  71 
phenomena  of,  68 
Respiration,  80 

apparatus,  111 
equivalents,  157 
through  skin,  83 
Reticulum,  56 
Rice,  335 

Rickets,  cause  of,  23 
Roots,  355,  361 

composition  of,  361 

effects  of,  on  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder,  283 
feeding  value  of,  362 
general  properties  of,  355 
variations  in  composition  of,  362 
Root  crops,  tops  of,  composition  of,  321 
digestibility  of,  321 
Rowen,  288,  298 
Ruminants,  stomach  of,  56 
Rumination,  56 

may  be  suspended,  58 
Rye,  333 

Sainfoin,  313 
Saliva,  55 

action  of,  on  food,  56 
Salivary  glands,  55 
Salt,  common,  effects  of,  on  digestibility,  287 

protein  consumption,  134 
uses  of,  23 
Salt-hunger,  21 

effects  of,  21 
Salts,  essential  and  accidental,  22 
Sarkolactic  acid,  13 

Saving  of  work  by  concentrated  fodder,  228 
Seradella,  313 

Shearing,  effect  of,  on  fattening,  403 
Sheep,  fattening,  399 

best  age  for,  402 


522  INDEX. 

Sheep,  fattening,  effect  of  shearing  on,  403 
feeding  standards,  400 
proportion  of  protein  for,  399 
quantity  of  water,  403 
maintenance  feeding  of,  383 

feeding  standards,  387 
Weende  experiments,  383 
need  relatively  more  food  than  cattle,  383 
Skin,  conduction  and  radiation  of  heat  from,  231 

respiration  through,  83 
Soda,  salts  of,  in  bile,  Q2 
Solid  excrements,  composition  of,  73 

tissues,  proportions  of,  5 
Sour  hay,  317,  318 
Source  of  muscular  power,  213 
Sources  of  fat,  169 
Stable,  temperature  of,  237 

Stage  of  growth,  effect  of,  on  digestibility  of  hay,  263 

quality  of  hay,  292,  302 
Starch,  41 

composition  of,  43 
effect  of,  on  digestibility,  280 
properties,  41 
Starch-cellulose,  42 

grains,  42 
Stimulants,  effect  of,  on  chemical  processes  in  body,  136,  242 
Stomach  of  ruminants,  56 
Storing,  effect  of,  on  digestibility,  262 
Storing  up  of  energy  in  body,  219 

influence  of  protein  on,  222 
oxygen,  85 

relation  of,  to  storing  up  of  energy,  220 
Stover,  315 

composition  of,  315 
Straw  a  valuable  fodder,  322 
digestibility  of,  324 
of  the  cereals,  322 
legumes,  326 

composition  and  digestibility  of,  326 
manner  of  using,  325 
variations  in  composition  of,  323 


INDEX.  523 


Structure  of  milk-glands,  414 

Sugar,  effect  of,  on  digestibility  of  coarse  fodder,  383 
in  blood,  13 
beet  pulp,  363 
Sugars,  the,  43 

composition  of,  43 
Sulphuric  acid,  excretion  of,  during  work,  308 
Swine,  fattening,  404 

choice  of  fodder,  405 
feeding  standards,  404 
mineral  matters,  405 
quantity  of  fodder,  404 
Systemic  circulation,  80 

Taurocholic  acid,  63 

Temperature,  influence  of,  on  fat-production,  198 
production  of  heat,  333 
of  stable,  237 

Theory  of  muscular  exertion,  224 

Thoracic  duct,  68 

Time  occupied  in  digestion,  105 

Time  of  cutting,  effect  of,  on  digestibility,  363 

Tissues,  solid,  proportions  of,  5 

Tops  of  root  crops,  composition  of,  321 
digestibility  of,  321 

Trypsin,  63 

action  of,  on  albuminoids,  63 

Tubers,  355,  359 

general  properties  of,  355 
proportion  of  non-protein  in,  357 

Tyrosin  from  albuminoids,  63 

Udder,  415 

Ultimate  lobules  of  lungs,  81 

Urea,  84,  93 

from  albuminoids,  87 
Uric  acid,  93 
Urine,  93 

nitrogen  all  excreted  in  the,  94-101 
Use  of  distillers'  grains,  340 


524  INDEX. 

Uses  of  common  salt,  23 
oil  cake,  348 

Value  of  straw,  332 

Variations  in  composition  of  straw,  323 

of  live-weight,  117 
Varieties  of  animal  albuminoids,  15 
Vegetable  albumin,  27 
casein,  28 

composition  of,  28 
fats,  46 
fibrin,  29 
protein,  26 
Vein,  hepatic,  68,  79 

left  subclavian,  68 
portal,  68,  79 
Veins,  79 

pulmonary,  77 
Vena  cava,  anterior,  77 
posterior,  77 
Ventricles  of  the  heart,  77 
Vesicles  of  lungs,  81 
Vetches,  309 
Villi,  67 
Vital  heat,  230 

how  regulated,  230 
Voit's  experiments  on  excretion  of  nitrogen,  95 
muscular  exertion,  204 

Warming  ingesta,  expenditure  of  heat  in,  236 
Water,  efifect  of  work  on  excretion  of,  207 

excretion  of,  102 

influence  of,  on  protein  consumption,  135 

proportion  of  in  body,  7 
Weaning,  446 
Wheat,  832 

gluten,  28 
Whey,  354 
Wool  production,  387 

influence  of  feeding  on,  387 
Work,  classification  of,  202 


INDEX.  .  525 

Work,  efiFect  of,  on  digestion,  271 
excretion,  204 

of  carbonic  acid,  206 
nitrogen,  204 
water,  207 
fat  consumption,  207 
excretion  of  gaseous  nitrogen  during,  208 
internal,  226 

Kellner's  experiments  on,  209 
Noyes's  experiments  on,  212 
Pettenkofer  &  Voit's  experiments  on,  206 
production  of,  202 

protein  consumption  not  increased  by,  204,  206 
saving  of,  by  concentrated  fodder,  228 
Voit's  experiments  on,  204 
Working  animals,  feeding,  407 

importance  of  fat  to,  408 
need  of  protein  for,  407 
oxen,  feeding  of,  408 

standard,  408 

STOUNO  animals,  amount  of  food  consumed  by,  437 

consumption  of  inorganic  nutrients  by,  441 
excretion  of  carbonic  acid  by,  440 
general  laws  of  nutrition  of,  436 
production  of  fat  by,  440 

flesh  by,  439 
protoin  consumption  in,  439 


BmPERTY  UBMAh 

N.  C.  State  Collegt 


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2 

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50 

Wassermann's  Immune  Sera :  Haemolysins,  Cytotoxins,  and  Precipitins.    (Bol- 

duan.) i2nio, 

Weaver's  Military  Explosives 8vo, 

Wehrenfennig's  Analysis  and  Softening  of  Boiler  Feed-Water 8vc. 

Wells's  Laboratory  Guide  in  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis 8vo, 

Short  Course  in  Inorganic  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis  for  Engineering 

Students i2mo, 

Text-book  of  Chemical  Arithmetic i2mo, 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water 8vo, 

Wilson's  Cyanide  Processes i2mo, 

Chlorination  Process i2mo, 

Winton's  Microscopy  of  Vegetable  Foods Svo, 

V/uUing's    Elementary    Course    in  Inorganic,  Pharmaceutical,  and  Medical 
Chemistry i2mo, 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING. 

BRIDGES    AND    ROOFS.       HYDRAULICS.       MATERIALS    OF    ENGINEERING. 
kAILWAY   ENGINEERING. 

Baker's  Engineers'  Surveying  Instruments i2mo, 

Bixby's  Graphical  Computing  Table Paper  19  ^  •  24!  inches. 

**  Burr's  Ancient  and  Modern  Engineering  and  the  Isthmian  Cana .,     (Postage, 

27  cents  additional. ) Svo, 

Comstock's  Field  Astronomy  for  Engineers Svo, 

Davis's  Elevation  and  Stadia  Tables Svo, 

Elliott's  Engineering  for  Land  Drainage i2mo, 

Practical  Farm  Drainage i2mo, 

**=Fiebeger's  Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering Svo, 

"Flemer's  Phototopographic  Methods  and  Instruments Svo, 

Folwell's  Sewerage.     (Designing  and  Maintenance. "i Svo, 

Freitag's  Architectural  Engineering.     2d  Edition,  Rewritten Svo, 

Trench  and  Ives's  Stereotomy Svo, 

Goodhue's  Municipal  Improvements i2m«o, 

Goodrich's  Economic  Disposal  of  Towns'  Refuse Svo, 

Gore's  Elements  of  Geodesy Svo, 

Hayford's  Text-book  of  Geodetic  Astronomy Svo, 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors") i6mo,  morocco, 

Howe's  Retaining  Walls  for  Earth i2n:o, 

*  Ives's  Adjustments  of  the  Engineer's  Transit  and  Level i6mo,  Bds. 

Ives  and  Hilts's  Problems  in  Surveying i6mo,  morocco, 

Johnson's  (J.  B.)  Theory  and  Practice  of  Surveying Small  Svo, 

Johnson's  (L.  J.)  Statics  by  Algebraic  and  Graphic  Methods Svo, 

Laplace's  Philosophical  Essay  on  Probabilities.     (Truscott  and  Emory.) .  i2mo, 
Mahan's  Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering.     (1873-)     (Wood.) Svo, 

*  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo, 

Merriman's  Elements  of  Precise  Surveying  and  Geodesy Svo, 

Merriman  and  Brooks's  Handbook  for  Surveyors i6mo,  morocco, 

Nugent's  Plane  Surveying 8vo, 

Ogden's  Sewer  Design i2mo, 

Parsons's  Disposal  of  Municipal  Refuse 8vo, 

Patton's  Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering Svo  half  leather. 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing  and  Sketching 4to, 

Rideal's  Sewage  and  the  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewage Svo, 

Siebert  and  Biggin's  Modern  Stone-cuttirg  and  Masonry Svo, 

Smith's  Manual  of  Topographical  Drawing.     (McMillan.) Svc, 

Sondericker's  Graphic  Statics,  with  Applications  to  Trusses,  Beams,  and  Arches. 

Svo, 

6 


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50 

Taylor  and  Thompson's  Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforcea 8vo, 

*  Trautwine's  Civil  Engineer's  Pocket-book i6mo,  morocco, 

Venable's  Garbage  Crematories  in  America •   8vo, 

Wait's  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence "•  -Svo, 

Sheep, 
Law  of  Operations  Preliminary  to  Construction  in  Engineering  and  Archi- 
tecture  8vo, 

Sheep, 

Law  of  Contracts ^^°' 


Warren's  Stereotomy — Problems  in  Stone-cutting 8vo, 

Webb's  Problems  in  the  Use  and  Adjustment  of  Engineering^nstruments. 

Wilson's  Topographic  Surveying 8vo, 


5 

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BRIDGES  AND  ROOFS. 

Boiler's  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  Iron  Highway  Bridges.  .8vo,  2  00 

♦       Thames  River  Bridge 4to,  paper,  5  00 

Burr's  Course  on  the  Stresses  in  Bridges  and  Roof  Trusses,  Arched  Ribs,  and 

Suspension  Bridges ^'^°'  3  50 

Burr  and  Falk's  Influence  Lines  for  Bridge  and  Roof  Com.putations Bvo,  3  00 

Design  and  Construction  of  Metallic  Bridges 8vo,  5  00 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics  of  Engineering.     Vol.  II Entail  4to,  10  oo 

Foster's  Treatise  on  Wooden  Trestle  Bridges 4to,  5  00 

Fowler's  Ordinary  Foundations 8vo,  3  50 

Greene's  Roof  Trusses f^°'  ^  ^^ 

Bridge  Trusses 8vo,  2  so 

Arches  in  Wood,  Iron,  and  Stone »vo,  2  50 

Howe's  Treatise  on  Arches 8vo,  4  00 

Design  of  Simple  Roof-trusses  in  Wood  and  Steel 8vo,  2  00 

Symmetrical  Masonry  Arches 8vo,  2  50 

Tohnson    Bryan,  and  Turneaure's  Theory  and  Practice  in  the  Designing  of 

'Modern  Framed  Structures •  ■   Small  4to,  10  oo 

Merriman  and  Jacoby's  Text-book  on  Roofs  and  Bridges: 

Part  I.     Stresses  in  Simple  Trusses 8vo,  2  50 

Part  TI.     Graphic  Statics ^•^'^»  ^  50 

Part  in.  Bridge  Design 8vo,  2  50 

Part  IV.   Hieher  Structures pv°'  ^  SO 

Morison's  Memohis  Bridge .4  o,  10  o 

Waddell's  De  Pontibus,  a  Pocket-book  for  Bridge  Engineers.  .  161-0,  morocco,  2  00 

*  Specifications  for  Steel  Bridges ■  -1211:0,         50 

Wright's  Designing  of  Draw-spans.     Two  parts  in  one  volume 8vo,    3  50 


HYDRAULICS. 

Barnes's  Ice  Formation .,'':'  '^'^'  ^ 

Bazin's  Experiments  upon  the  Contraction  of  the  Liquid  Vein  Issuing  from 

an  Orifice.     fTrautwine.^ S^^^'  ^  00 

Bovey's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics ^°'  ^  °° 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  00 

Diagrams  of  Mean  Velocity  of  Water  in  Open  Channels paper,  i   50 

Hydraulic  Motors ^°' 

Coffin's  Granhical  Solution  of  Hydraulic  Problems i6mo,  morocco.  2  50 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power i2rro,  3  00 

Folwell's  Water-supply  Engineering,  . ^°'  4  00 

Frizell's  Water-power '  " 

7 


Tuertes's  Water  and  PubUc  Health . .  i2mo,  i  50 

Water-filtration  Works i2mo,  2  50 

Ganguillet  and  Kutter's  General  Formula  for  the  Uniform  Flow  of  Water  in 

Rivers  and  Other  Channels.     (Hering  and  Trautwine. ; 8vo,  4  00 

Hazen's  Filtration  of  Public  Water-supply 8vo,  3  00 

Hazlehurst's  Towers  and  Tanks  for  Water- works 8vo,  2  50 

Herschel's  115  Experiments  on  the  Carrying  Capacity  of  Large,  Riveted,  Metal 

Conduits SvO;  2  00 

Mason's  Water-supply.     (Considered  Principally  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint.) 

Svo,  4  00 

Iflerrlman's  Treatise  on  Hydraulxs Svo,  5  00 

~*=  Michie's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics Svo,  4  00 

Schuyler's   Reservoirs   for   Irrigation,   Water-power,   and   Domestic   Water- 
supply Large  Svo,  5  00 

**  Thomas  and  Watt's  Improvement  of  Rivers      (Post.,  44c.  additional.)  4to,  6  00 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies Svo,  5  00 

Wegmann's  Design  and  Cor.struction  of  Dams 4to,  5  00 

Water-supply  of  the  City  of  New  York  from  1658  to  1895 4to,  10  00 

Williams  and  Hazen's  Hydraulic  Tables Svo,  i  50 

Wilson's  Irrigation  Engineering Small  Svo,  4  00 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover Svo,  3  00 

Wood's  Turbines Svo,  2  50 

Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics Svo,  3  00 


MATERIALS  OF  ENGINEERING. 

Baker's  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction Svo, 

Roads  and  Pavements Svo, 

Black's  United  States  Public  Works Oblong  4to, 

*  Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures Svo, 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering Svo, 

Byrne's  Highway  Construction Svo, 

Inspection  of  the  Materials  and  Workmanship  Employed  in  Construction. 

i6mo. 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering Svo, 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics  of  Engineering.     VoL  I Small  4to, 

■'*Eckers  Cements,  Limes,  and  Plasters Svo, 

Johnson's  Materials  of  Construction Large  Svo, 

Towler's  Ordinary  Foundations Svo, 

'Graves's  Forest  Mensuration Svo, 

'*  Greene's  Structural  Mechanics Svo, 

Keep's  Cast  Iron Svo, 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics .- Svo, 

Marten's  Handbook  on  Testing  Materials.     (Henning.)     2  vols Svo, 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics Svo, 

Merrill's  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration Svo, 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials Svo, 

Strength  of  Materials i2mo, 

Metcalf'-j  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users i2mo, 

Patton's  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundations Svo, 

Richardson's  Modern  Asphalt  Pavements      Svo, 

Richey's  Handbook  for  Superintendents  of  Construction i6mo,  mor., 

-*  Ries's  Clays:  Their  Occurrence,  Properties,  and  Uses Svo, 

Rockw^ell's  Roads  and  Pavements  in  France i2mo, 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish Svo, 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines i2mo, 

Snow's  Principal  Species  of  Wood Svo, 

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00 

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00 

Spalding's  Hydr.a»ulic  Cement i2mo, 

Text-book  on  Roads  and  Pavements i2mo, 

Taylor  and  Thompson's  Treatise  on  Concrete.  Plain  and  Reinforced 8vo, 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.     3  Parts 8vo, 

Part  I.     Non-metaUic  Materials  of  Engineering  and  Metallurgy 8vo, 

Part  II      Iron  and  Steel 8vo, 

Part  III.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents. 8vo, 

Thurston's  Text-book  of  the  Materials  of  Construction 8vo, 

Tillson's  Street  Pavements  and  Paving  Materials 8vo, 

Waddell's  De  Pontibus     (A  Pocket-book  for  Bridge  Engineers.)    .  i6mo,  mor., 

Specifications  for  Steel  Bridges i2mo, 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Treatise  on  the  Resistance  of  Materials,  and  an  Appendix  on 

the  Preservation  of  Timber 8vo, 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo, 

T/ood's  (M.  P.)  Rustless  Coatings:    Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and 

Steel 8vo,    4  00 


RAILWAY  ENGINEERING. 

Andrew's  Handbook  for  Street  Railway  Engineers 3x5  inches,  morocco, 

Berg's  Buildings  and  Structures  of  American  Railroads 4to, 

Brook's  Handbook  of  Street  Raikoad  Location i6mo,  morocco. 

Butt's  Civil  Engineer's  Field-book ".  .  i6mo,  morocco, 

Crandall's  Transition  Curve i6mo,  morocco, 

Railway  and  Other  Earthwork  Tables 8vo, 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book     i6mO;  morocco, 

Dredge's  History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad:    (1879) Paper, 

*  Drinker's  Tunnelling,  Explosive  Compounds,  and  Rock  Drills. 4to,  half  mor., 

Fisher's  Table  of  Cubic  Yards Cardboard, 

Godwin's  Raihroad  Engineers'  Field-book  and  Explorers'  Guide.  .  .  i6mo,  mor., 

Howard's  Transition  Curve  Field-book i6mo,  morocco, 

Hudson's  Tables  for  Calculatiftg  the  Cubic  Contents  of  Excavations  and  Em- 


bankments. 


.8vo. 


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00 

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00 

3 

00 

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50 

MoUtor  and  Beard's  Manual  for  Resident  Engineers. i6mo, 

Nagle  s  Field  Manual  for  Raihroad  Engineers i6mo,  morocco. 

Philbrick's  Field  Manual  for  Engineers.  .     i6mo,  morocco, 

Searles-s  Field  Engineering i6mo,  morocco, 

Raih-oad  Spiral i6mo,  morocco, 

Taylor's  Prismoidal  Formulae  and  Earthwork 8vo, 

*  Trautwines  Method  of  Calculating  the  Cube  Contents  of  Excavations  and 

Embankments  by  the  Aid  of  Diagrams 8vo,     2  00 

The  Field  Practice  of  Laying  Out  Circular  Curves  for  Railroads. 

i2mo,  morocco,     2  50 

Cross-section  Sheet Paper,         25 

Webbs  Raih-oad  Construction i6mo,  morocco,    5  00 

Economics  of  Raikoad  Construction Large  i2mo,    2  50 

Wellington's  Economic  Theory  of  the  Location  of  Railways Small  Svo-     5  00 


DRAWING. 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery •• 8vo  2  50 

*  Bartlett's  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  3  00 

♦  •'  "  "         Abridged  Ed 8vo,  i   50 

Coolidge's  Manual  of  Drawing 8vo,  paper,  i  00 

9 


Coolidge  and  Freeman's  Elements  of  General  Drafting  for  Mechanical  Engi- 
neers  Oblong  4to, 

Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines 8vo, 

Emch's  Introduction  to  Projective  Geometry  and  its  Applications 8vo, 

Hill's  Text-book  on  Shades  and  Shadows,  and  Perspective 8vo, 

Jamison's  Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo, 

Advanced  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo, 

Jones's  Machine  Design: 

Part  I.     Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo, 

Part  II.     Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts 8vo, 

MacCord's  Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo, 

Kinematics;   or.  Practical  Mechanism 8vo, 

Mechanical  Drawing 4to, 

Velocity  Diagrams 8vo, 

MacLeod's  Descriptive  Geometry Small  8vo, 

*  Mahan's  Descriptive  Geometry  and  Stone-cutting 8vo, 

Industrial  Drawing.     (Thompson.) 8vo, 

Moyer's  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo, 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing  and  Sketching 4to, 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo, 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. 8vo, 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo, 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo, 

Smith's  (R.  S.)  Manual  of  Topographical  Drawing.     (McMillan.) 8vo, 

Smith  (A.  W.)  and  Marx's  i  '^achine  Design 8vo, 

*  Titsworth's  Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing Oblong  8vo, 

Warren's  Elements  of  Plane  and  Solid  Free-hand  Geometrical  Drawing.  i2mo, 

Drafting  Instruments  and  Operations i2mo, 

Manual  of  Elementary  Projection  Drawing i2mo, 

Manual  of  Elementary  Problems  in  the  Linear  Perspective  of  Form  and 

Shadow i2mo. 

Plane  Problems  in  Elementary  Geometry i2mo, 

Primary  Geometry i2rao. 

Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry,  Shadows,  and  Perspective 8vo, 

General  Problems  of  Shades  and  Shadows 8vo, 

Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing 8vo, 

Problems,  Theorems,  and  Examples  in  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo, 

Weisbach's     Kinematics    and    Power    of    Transmission.         (Her.Tiann    and 

Klein.) 8vo, 

Whelpley's  Practical  Instruction  in  the  Art  of  Letter  Engraving i2mo, 

Wilson's  (H.  M.)  Topographic  Surveying 8vo, 

Wilson's  (V.  T.)  Free-hand  Perspective 8vo, 

Wilson's  (V.  T.)  Free-hand  Lettering 8vo, 

Woolf's  Elementary  Course  in  Descriptive  Geometry Large  8vo, 


ELECTRICITY  AND  PHYSICS. 

Anthony  and  Brackett's  Text-book  of  Physics.     fMagle.) Small  8vo,  3  00 

Anthony's  Lecture-notes  on  the  Theory  of  Electrical  Measurements.  .  .  .  i2mo,  i  00 

Benjamin's  History  of  Electricity 8vo,  3  00 

Voltaic  Cell 8vo,  3  00 

Classen's  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis  by  Electrolysis.     (Boltwood.).8vo,  3  00 

*  Collins's  Manual  of  Wireless  Telegraphy.. lamo,  i  50 

Morocco,  2  00 

Crehore  and  Squler's  Polarizing  Photo-chronograph.  .  , 8vo,  3  00 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book.  i6mo,  morocco,  5  oa 

10 


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Dolezalek's    Theory    of    the    Lead    Accumulator    (Storage    Battery).       (Von 

Ende.) i2mo,  2  50. 

Duhem's  Thermodynamics  and  Chemistry.     (Burgess.) 8vo,  4  Oq 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power i2mo,  3  00 

Gilbert's  De  Magnete.     (Mottelay.) 8vo,  2  50 

Hanchett's  Alternating  Currents  Explained i2mo,  i  00 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) i6mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Holman's  Precision  of  Measurements 8vo,  2  00 

Telescopic   Mirror-scale  Method,  Adjustments,  and   Tests Large  8vo,  75 

Kinzbrunner's  Testing  of  Continuous-current  Machines 8vo,  2  00 

Landauer's  Spectrum  Analysis.     (Tingle.) 8vo,  3  00 

Le  Chateliers  High-temperature  Measurements.  (Boudouard— Burgess.)  i2mo,  3  00 

Lob's  Electrochemistry  of  Organic  Compounds.     (Lorenz.) Svo,  3  00 

*  Lyons'3  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic  Phenomena.   Vols.  I.  and  IL  Svo,  each,  6  00 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Wave  Motion  Relating  to  Sound  and  Light Svo,  4  00 

Niaudet's  Elementary  Treatise  on  Electric  Batteries.     (Fishback.) i2mo,  2  50 

*  Parshalland  Hobart's  Electric  Machine  Design 4to,  half  morocco,  12  50 

*  Rosenberg's  Electrical  Engineering.     (Haldane  Gee— Kinzbrunner.).  .  .Svo,  i  50 

Ryan,  Norris,  and  Hoxie's  Electrical  Mschinery.     Vol.  I Svo,  2  50 

Thurston's  Stationary  Steam-engines 8vo,  2  50 

*  Tillman's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Heat Svo,  i   50 

Tory  and  Pitcher's  Manual  of  Laboratory  Physics. Small  Svo,  2  00 

Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining Svo,  3  00 


LAW. 

*  Davis's  Elements  of  Law 8vo, 

*  Treatise  on  the  MiUtary  Law  of  United  States Svo, 

*  Sheep, 

Manual  for  Courts-martial i6mo,  morocco, 

"Wait's  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence Svo, 

Sheep, 
Law  of  Operations  PreUminary  to  Construction  in  Engineering  and  Archi- 
tecture  ^"^O' 

Sheer, 

Law  of  Contracts 8vo, 

Winthrop's  Abridgment  of  Military  Law izmo, 


MANUFACTURES. 

Bernadou's  Smokeless  Powder — Nltro-telluiosc  and  Theory  of  the  Cellulose 

Molecule.  .  , i2mo, 

Bolland's  Iron  Founder i2mo. 

The  Iron  Founder,"  Supplement i2mo, 

Encyclopedia  of  Founding  and  Dictionary  of  Foundry  Terms  Used  in  the 

Practice  of  Moulding i2mo, 

Claassen's  Beet-sugar  Manufacture.    (Hall  and  Rolfe.) Svo, 

*  Eckel's  Cements,  Limes,  and  Plasters Svo, 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives Svo, 

.Effront's  Enzymes  and  their  AppUcations.     (Prescott.) Svo, 

Fitzgerald's  Boston  Machinist i2mo. 

Ford's  Boiler  Making  for  Boiler  Makers iSmo, 

Hopkin's  Oil-chemists'  Handbook Svo, 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo, 

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Xeach's  The  Inspection  and  Analysis  of  Food  with  Special  Reference  to  State 

Control Large  8vo,  7  50 

"*  McKay  and  Larsen's  Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter-making 8vo,  i  50 

Matthews's  The  Textile  Fibres 8vo,  3  50 

Metcalf's  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users lamo,  2  00 

Metcalfe's  Cost  of  Manufactures — And  the  Administration  of  Workshops. Svo,  5  00 

Meyer's  Modern  Locomotive  Construction 4to,  10  00 

Morse's  Calculations  used  in  Cane-sugar  Factories i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

*  Reisig's  Guide  to  Piece-dyeing Svo,  25  00 

Rice's  Concrete-block  Manufacture Svo,  2  00 

Sabir's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish Svo,  3  00 

Smith's  Press-working  of  Metals Svo,  3  00 

Spalding's  Hydraulic  Cement i2mo,  2  00 

Spencer's  Handbook  for  Chemists  of  Beet-sugar  Houses i6mo,  morocco,  3  00 

Handbook  for  Cane  Sugar  Manufacturers T6mo,  morocco,  3  00 

Taylor  and  Thompson's  Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced Svo,  5  00 

Thurston's  Manual  of  Steam-boilers,  their  Designs,  Construction  and  Opera- 
tion  Svo,  5  00 

*  Walke's  Lectures  on  Explosives Svo,  4  00 

Ware's  Beet-sugar  Manufacture  and  Refining Small  Svo,    4  00 

Weaver's  Military  Explosives Svo,  3  00 

West's  American  Foundry  Practice i2mo,  2  50 

Moulder's  Text-book i2mo,  2  50 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover Svo,  3  00 

Wood's  Rustless  Coatings:   Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and  Steel.  .Svo,  4  00 


MATHEMATICS. 


50 


Baker's  Elliptic  Functions. .. .  •. Svo 

*  Bass's  i:-lements  of  Differential  Calculus i2mo,  4  00 

Briggs's  Elements  of  Plane  Analytic  Geometry i2mo,  i  00 

Compton's  Manual  of  Logarithmic  Computations i2mo,  i  50 

Davis's  Introduction  to  the  Logic  of  Algebra Svo,  i  50 

*  Dickson's  College  Algebra Large  i2mo,  1   50 

*  Introduction  to  the  Theory  of  Algebraic  Equations Large  i2mo,  i  25 

Emch's  Introduction  to  Projective  Geometry  and  its  Applications Svo,  2  50 

Halsted's  Elements  of  Geometry Svo,  i  75 

Elementary  Synthetic  Geometry. Svo,  1  50 

Rational  Geometry i2mo,  i   75 

*  Johnson's  (J.  B.)  Three-place  Logarithmic  Tables:   Vest-pocket  size. paper,  15 

100  copies  for  5  00 

*  Mounted  on  heavy  cardboard,  SX 10  inches,  25 

ID  copies  for  2  00 

Johnson's  (W   W.)  Elementary  Treatise  on  Differential  Calculus.  .Small  Svo,  3  00 

Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Integral  Calculus Small  Svo,  i  50 

Johnson's  fW.  W.)  Curve  Tracing  in  Cartesian  Co-ordinates i2mo,  i  00 

Johnson's  (W    W.)  Treatise  on  Ordinary  and  Partial  Differential  Equations. 

Small  Svo,  3  50 

Johnson's  (W,  W.)  Theory  of  Errors  and  the  Method  of  Least  Squares.  i2mo,  1  50 

*  Johnson's  (W   W.)  Theoretical  Mechanics i2mo,  3  00 

Laplace's  Philosophical  Essay  on  Probabilities.     (Truscott  and  Emory.).  i2mo,  2  00 

*  Ludlow  and  Bass.     Elements  of  Trigonometry  and  Logarithmic  and  Other 

Tables Svo,  3  00 

Trigonometry  and  Tables  published  separately   Each,  2.  00 

*  Ludlow's  Logarithmic  and  Trigonometric  Tables Svo,  1  00 

Manning's  Irrational  Numbers  and  their  Representation  by  Sequences  and  Series 

I2mo  I  25 
12 


Mathematical  Monographs.     Edited  by  Mansfield  Merriman  and  Robert 

S.  Woodward Octavo,  each     i  oo 

No.  I.  History  of  Modern  Mathematics,  by  David  Eugene  Smith. 
No.  2.  Synthetic  Projective  Geometry,  by  George  Bruce  Halsted. 
No.  3.  Determinants,  by  Laenas  Gifford  Weld.  No.  4.  Hyper- 
bolic Functions,  by  James  McMahon.  No.  5.  Harmonic  Func- 
tions, by  William  E.  Byerly.  No,  6.  Grassmann's  Space  Analysis, 
by  Edward  W,  Hyde.  No.  7.  Probability  and  Theory  of  Errors, 
by  Robert  S.  Woodward.  No.  8.  Vector  Analysis  and  Quaternions, 
by  Alexander  Macfarlane.  No.  9.  Differential  Equations,  by 
William  Woolsey  Johnson.  No.  10.  The  Solution  of  Equations, 
by  Mansfield  Merriman.  No.  11.  Functions  of  a  Complex  Variable, 
by  Thomas  S.  Fiske. 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,    4  00 

Merriman's  Method  of  Least  Squares Svo,     2  00 

nice  and  Johnson's  Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Differential  Calculus. .  Sm.  Svo,    3  00 

Differential  and  Integral  Calculus.     2  vols,  in  one. Small  Svo,    2  50 

Wood's  Elements  of  Co-ordinate  Geometry Svo,    2  00 

Trigonometry;   Analytical,  Plane,  and  Spherical i2mo,     i  00 


MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING. 

MATERIALS  OF  ENGINEERING,  STEAM-ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 

Bacon's  Forge  Practice i2mo, 

Baldwin's  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings i2mo, 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery Svo, 

*  Bartlett's  Mechanical  Drawing Svo, 

*  "  "  "         Abridged  Ed Svo, 

Benjamin's  Wrinkles  and  Recipes i2mo. 

Carpenter's  Experimental  Engineering Svo, 

Heating  and  Ventilating  Buildings Svo, 

Cary's  Smoke  Suppression  in  Plants  using  Bituminous  Coal.     (In  Prepara- 
tion.) 

Clerk's  Gas  and  Oil  Engine Small  Svo, 

CooUdge's  Manual  of  Drawing Svo,  paper, 

iCooUdge  and  Freeman's  Elements  of  General  Drafting  for  Mechanical  En- 
gineers   Oblong  4to, 

Cromwell's  Treatise, on  Toothed  Gearing i2mo. 

Treatise  on  Belts  and  Pulleys i2mo, 

Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines Svo, 

Flather's  Dynamometers  and  the  Measurement  of  Power. i2mo. 

Rope  Driving i2mo. 

Gill's  Gas  and  Fuel  Analysis  for  Engineers i2mo. 

Hall's  Car  Lubrication i2mo, 

Hering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) i6mo,  morocco, 

Hatton's  The  Gas  Engine Svo, 

Jamison's  Mechanical  Drawing Svo, 

Jones's  Machine  Design: 

Part  I.     Kinematics  of  Machinery Svo, 

Part  II.     Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts Svo, 

Kent's  Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket-book i6mo,  morocco, 

Kerr's  Power  and  Power  Transmission Svo, 

Leonard's  Machine  Shop,  Tools,  and  Methods Svo, 

*  Lorenz's  Modern  Refrigerating  Machinery.    (Pope,  Haven,  and  Dean.)  .  .  Svo, 
MacCord's  Kinematics;   or  Practical  Mechanism Svo, 

Mechanical  Drawing 4to 

Velocity  Diagrams.         Svo, 

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3 

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3 

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3 

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5 

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3 

GO 

2 

50^ 

MacFarland's  Standard  Reduction  Factors  for  Gases 8vo, 

Mahan's  Industrial  Drawing.     (Thompson.), 8vo, 

Poole's  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels 8vg 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing 8vg, 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. 8vo, 

Richard's  Compressed  Air i2mo, 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo, 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo, 

Smith's  (0.)  Press-working  of  Metals 8vo, 

Smith  (A.  W.)  and  Marx's  Machine  Design 8vo, 

Thurston's  Treatise  on  Friction  and  Lost  Work  in  Machinery  and  Mill 
Work..  .  , 8vo, 

Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Motor,  and  the  Laws  of  Energetics.  i2mo, 

Warren's  Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing 8vo, 

Weisbach's  Kinematics  and  the  Power  of  Transmission.  (Herrmann — 
Klein.). 8vo, 

Machinery  of  Transmission  and  Governors.     (Herrmann — Klein.).  .8vo, 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover 8vo, 

Wood's  Turbines 8vo, 


MATERIALS   OP  ENGINEERING. 

*  Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures 8vo,     7  50 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering.     6th  Edition. 

Reset 8vo, 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo, 

*  Greene's  Structural  Mechanics 8vo, 

Johnson's  Materials  of  Construction 8vo, 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo, 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics Svo, 

Martens's  Handbook  on  Testing  Materials.     (Henning.)  .  . Svo, 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics Svo. 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials Svo, 

Strength  of  Materials i2mo, 

Metcalf 's  Steel.     A  manual  for  Steel-users lamo, 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish Svo, 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines i2mo, 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering 3  vols.,  Svo, 

Part  II.     Iron  and  Steel Svo, 

Part  III.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents Svo, 

Text-book  of  the  Materials  of  Construction Svo, 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Treatise  on  the  Resistance  of  Materials  and  an  Appendix  on 

the  Preservation  of  Timber Svo, 

Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics Svo 

Wood's  (M.  P  }  Rustless  Coatings:    Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and 

Steel Svo,    4  00 


STEAM-ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 

Berry's  Temperature-entropy  Diagram i2mo,  i   25 

Carnot's  Reflections  on  the  Motive  Power  of  Heat.     (Thurston.),     .     ..i2mo,  i  5a 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book.  .  .  .i6mo  mor.,  5  00 

Ford's  Boiler  Making  for  Boiler  Makers iSmo,  i  00 

Goss's  Locomotive  Sparks Svo,  2  00 

Hemenway's  Indicator  Practice  and  Steam-engine  Economy i2mG,  2  oo- 

14 


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3 

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I 

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8 

GO- 

3 

50 

2 

50 

5 

00 

2 

GO 

^ 

00 

Hutton's  Mechanical  Engineering  of  Power  Plants. 8vo,  5  00 

Heat  and  Heat-engines 8vo  5  00 

Xent's  Steam  boiler  Economy 8vo,  4  00 

Kneass's  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Injector Svo,  i  50 

MacCord's  Slide-valves Svo,  2  00 

Meyer's  Modern  Locomotive  Construction 4to,  10  oe 

Peabody's  Manual  of  the  Steam-engine  Indicator f2mo,  i  so 

Tables  of  the  Properties  of  Saturated  Steam  and  Other  Vapors    Svo,  i  00 

Thermodynamics  of  the  Steam-engine  and  Other  Heat-engines, Svo,  5  00 

Valve-gears  for  Steam-engines Svo,  2  50 

Peabody  and  Miller's  Steam-boilers Svo,  4  00 

Pray's  Twenty  Years  with  the  Indicator Large  Svo,  2  50 

Pupin's  Thermodynamics  of  Reversible  Cycles  in  Gases  and  Saturated  Vapors. 

(Osterberg.). i2mo,  i  25 

Reagan's  Locomotives;   Simple   Compound,  and  Electric i2mo,  2  50 

Rontgen's  Principles  of  Thermodynamics.     (Du  Bois.) Svo,  5  0© 

Sinclair's  Locomotive  Engine  Running  and  Management i2mo,  2  00 

Smart's  Handbook  of  Engineering  Laboratory  Practice i2mo,  2  50 

Snow's  Steam-boiler  Practice. Svo,  3  00 

Spangler's  Valve-gears Svo,  2  50 

Notes  on  Thermodynamics i2mo,  i  00 

Spangler,  Greene,  and  Marshall's  Elements  of  Steam-engineering Svo,  3  00 

Thomas's  Steam-turbines Svo,  3  50 

Thurston's  Handy  Tables Svo,  i  50 

Manual  of  the  Steam-engine 2  vols.,  Svo,  10  00 

Part  I.     History,  Structure,  and  Theory Svo,  6  00 

Part  II.     Design,  Construction,  and  Operation Svo,  6  00 

Handbook  of  Engine  and  Boiler  Trials,  and  the  Use  of  the  Indicator  and 

the  Prony  Brake Svo,  5  00 

Stationary  Steam-engines Svo,  2  50 

Steam-boiler  Explosions  in  Theory  and  in  Practice i2mo,  i  50 

TManual  of  Steam-boilers,  their  Lesigns,  Construction,  and  Operation Svo,  5  00 

Wehrenfenning's  Analysis  and  Softening  of  Boiler  Feed-water  (Patterson)   Svo,  4  00 

Weisbach's  Heat,  Steam,  and  Steam-engines.     (Du  Bois.) Svo,  5  00 

Whitham's  Steam-engine  Design Svo,  5  00 

Wood's  Thermodynamics,  Heat  Motors,  and  Refrigerating  Machines.  ..Svo,  4  oO 


MECHANICS   AND   MACHINERY. 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo, 

*  Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures   Svo, 

Chase's  The  Art  of  Pattern-making i2mo. 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo, 

Notes  and  Examples  in  Mechanics Svo, 

Compton's  First  Lessons  in  Metal-working i2mo, 

Compton  and  De  Groodt's  The  Speed  Lathe i2mo, 

Cromwell's  Treatise  on  Toothed  Gearing i2mo. 

Treatise  on  Belts  and  Pulleys i2mo, 

Dana's  Text-book  of  Elementary  Mechanics  for  Colleges  and  Schools.  .i2mo. 

Dingey's  Machinery  Pattern  Making i2mo. 

Dredge's   Record  of   the   Transportation  Exhibits  Building  of   the   World's 

Columbian  Exposition  of  1S93. 4to  half  morocco,    5  00 

u  Bois's  Elementary  Principles  of  Mechanics- 

Vol.      I.     Kinematics 8vo, 

Vol.    II.     Statics , 8vo, 

Mechanics  of  Engineering,     Vol.    I. Small  4to,    7  50 

Vol.  II Small  4to,  10  00 

-Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines ,    Svo, 

15 


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50 

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4  00 


Fitzgerald's  Boston  Machinist i6mo,  i  oo 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power lamo,  3  00 

Rope  Driving i2mo,  2  oa 

Goss's  Locomotive  Sparks 8vo,  2  oo 

*  Greene's  Structural  Mechanics 8vo,  2  50- 

Hall's  Car  Lubrication i2mo,  i  oo 

Holly's  Art  of  Saw  Filing i8mo,  75 

James's  Kinematics  of  a  Point  and  the  Rational  Mechanics  of  a  Particle. 

Small  8vo,  2  00 

*  Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Theoretical  Mechanics i2mo,  3  o& 

Johnson's  (L.  J.)  Statics  by  Graphic  and  Algebraic  Methods ,  .  .  .8vo,  2  oo- 

Jones's  Machine  Design: 

Part    L     Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  i  5a 

Part  n.     Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts. 8vo,  3  00^ 

Kerr's  Power  and  Power  Transmission 8vo,  2  oa 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  sO' 

Leonard's  Machine  Shop,  Tools,  and  Methods 8vo,  4  oo 

*  Lorenz's  Modern  Refrigerating  Machinery.     (Pope,  Haven,  and  Dean.).8vo,  4  00 
MacCord's  Kinematics;   or.  Practical  Mechanism 8vo,  5  oa 

Velocity  Diagrams.  =  .     8vo,  i  50 

*  Martin's  Text  Book  on  Mechanics,  Vol.  I,  Statics i2mo,  i  25 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics. • 8vo,  4  oa 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials 8vo,  5  oa 

*  Elements  of  Mechanics i2mo,  i  oa 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  oa 

*  Parshall  and  Hobart's  Electric  Machine  Design 4to,  half  morocco,  12  5a 

Reagan's  Locomotives     Simple,  Compound,  and  Electric i2mo,  2  5a 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing. 8vo,  2  oa 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. 8vo,  3  oa 

Richards's  Compressed  Air i2mo,  i  5a 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oa 

Ryan,  Norris,  and  Hoxie's  Electrical  Machinery.     Vol.  1 8vo,  2  5a 

Sanborn's  Mechanics:  Problems Large  i2mo,  i   5a 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oa 

Sinclair's  Locomotive-engine  Running  and  Management i2mo,  2  oa 

Smith's  (O.)  Press-working  of  Metals 8vo,  3  oa 

Smith's  (A.  W.)  Materials  of  Machines i2mo,  i  oa 

Smith  (A.  W.)  and  Marx's  Machine  Design 8vo,  3  oa 

Spanglar,  Greene,  and  Marshall's  Elements  of  Steam-engineering 8vo,  3  oa 

Thurston's  Treatise  on  Friction  and  Lost  Work  in    Machinery  and    Mill 

Work 8vo,  3  oa 

Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Motor,  and  the  Laws  of  Energetics.  i2mo,  i  oa 

Warren's  Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing 8vo,  7  5a 

Weisbach's  Kinematics  and  Power  of  Transmission.    ( Herrmann — Klein. ) .  8vo ,  5  oa 

Machinery  of  Transmission  and  Governors.      (Herrmann — K?ein.).8vo,  5  oa 

Wood's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  3  oa 

Fiinciples  of  Elementary  Mechanics i2mo,  i  25 

Turbines 8vo,  2  5a 

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893 4*0,  i  00 


METALLURGY. 

Egleston's  Metallurgy  of  Silver,  Gold,  and  Mercury 

Vol.    I.     Silver 8vo,  7  5a 

Vol.  II.     Gold  and  Mercury 8vo,  7  50 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals-     a  Reference  Book ....  i6mo,  mor.  3  oa 

**  Iles's  Lead-smelting.     (Postage  0  cents  additional.) i2mo,  2  5a 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

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00 

Kunhardt's  Practice  of  Ore  Dressing  in  Europe.  .  .  , 8vo, 

Le  Chatelier's  High-temperature  Measurements.  (Boudouard— Burgess.  )i2mo. 

Metcalf' s  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users i2mo, 

Miller's  Cyanide  Process i2mo, 

Minet's  Production  of  Aluminum  and  its  Industrial  Use.     (Waldo.).  „ .  .  i2mo, 

Robine  and  Lenglen's  Cyanide  Industry.     (Le  Clerc).  . 8vo, 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines i2mo, 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.     In  Three  Parts 8vo, 

Part    II.     Iron  and  Steel 8vo, 

Part  III.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents - • 8vo, 

Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining 8vo, 


MINERALOGY. 

Barringer's  Description  of  Minerals  of  Commercial  Value.    Oblong,  morocco, 

Boyd's  Resources  of  Southwest  Virginia 8vo, 

Map  of  Southwest  Virignia Pocket-book  form. 

Brush's  Manual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy.     (Penfield.) 8vo, 

Chester's  Catalogue  of  Minerals 8vo,  paper, 

Cloth, 

Dictionary  of  the  Names  of  Minerals 8vo 

Dana's  System  of  Mineralogy.  . Large  8vo,  half  leather 

First  Appendix  to  Dana's  New  "  System  of  Mineralogy." Large  Bvo, 

Text-book  of  Mineralogy 8vo, 

Minerals  and  How  to  Study  Them i2mo. 

Catalogue  of  American  Localities  of  Minerals Large  Svo, 

Manual  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrography i2mo. 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects i2mo, 

Eakle's  Mineral  Tables 8vo, 

Egleston's  Catalogue  of  Minerals  and  Synonyms 8vo, 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals :     A  Reference  Book i6mo,mor.. 

Groth's  Introduction  to  Chemical  Crystallography  (Marshall) 12 mo, 

Hussak's  The  Determination  of  Rock-forming  Minerals.    (Smith.). Small  Svo, 
Merrill's  Non-metallic  Minerals-    Their  Occurrence  and  Lses Svo, 

*  Penfield's  Notes  on  Determinative  Mineralogy  and  Record  of  Mineral  Tests. 

8vo,  paper, 
Rosenbusch's    Microscopical   Physiography    of   the    Rock-making  Minerals. 

(Iddings.) 8vo,    5 

*  Tillman's  Text-book  of  Important  Minerals  and  Rocks Svo,     2  00 


MINING. 

Beard's  Ventilation  of  Mines i2mo, 

Boyd's  Resources  of  Southwest  Virginia 8vo, 

Map  of  Southwest  Virginia. , Pocket-book  form, 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects i2mo, 

*  Drinker's  Tunneling,  Explosive  Compounds,  and  Rock  Drills.  .4to,hf.  mor., 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives.    8--> 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals  •     A  Reference  Book i6mo,  mor. 

Goodyear's  Coal-mines  of  the  T*  astern  Coast  of  the  United  States i2mo, 

Ihlseng's  Manual  of  Mining 8vo, 

**  Ues's  Lead-smelting.     (Postage  go.  additional.). i2mo, 

Kunhardt's  Practice  of  Ore  Dressing  in  Europe Svo, 

MiUer's  Cyanide  Process i2mo, 

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2 

00 

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00 

25 

00 

4 

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3 

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2 

50 

5 

00 

2 

50 

I 

50 

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00 

O'Driscoll's  Notes  on  the  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores 8vo,  2  00 

Robine  and  Lenglen's  Cyanide  Industry.     (Le  Clerc.) 8vo,  4  00 

*  Walke's  Lectures  on  Explosives 8vo,  4  00 

Weaver's  Military  Explosives 8vo,  3  00 

Wilson's  Cyanide  Processes i2mo,  i  50 

Chlorination  Process , lamo,  i  50 

Hydraulic  and  Placer  M;ning i2mo,  2  00 

Treatise  on  Practical  and  Theoretical  Mine  Ventilation T2mo,  i  25 


SANITARY  SCIENCE. 

Bashore's  Sanitation  of  a  Country  House i2mo, 

*  Outlines  of  Practical  Sanitation i2mo, 

Folwell's  Sewerage.     (Designing,  Construction,  and  Maintenance.) 8vo, 

Water-supply  Engineering 8vo, 

Fowler's  Sewage  Works  Analyses i2mD, 

Fuertes's  Water  and  Public  Health i2mo. 

Water-filtration  Works i2mo, 

Gerhard's  Guide  to  Sanitary  House-inspection i6mo, 

Goodrich's  Economic  Disposal  of  Town's  Refuse Demy  8vo, 

Hazen's  Filtration  of  Public  Water-supplies 8vo, 

Leach's  The  Inspection  and  Analysis  of  Food  with  Special  Reference  to  State 

Control 8vo, 

Mason's  Water-supply.  (Considered  principally  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint)  8vo, 

Examination  of  Water.     (Chemical  and  Bacteriological.) i2mo, 

Ogden's  Sewer  Design i2mo, 

Prescott  and  Winslow's  Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology,  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Sanitary  Water  Analysis i2mo, 

•  *  Price's  Handbook  on  Sanitation i2mo, 

Richards's  Cost  of  Food.     A  Study  in  Dietaries i2mo, 

Cost«of  Living  as  Modified  by  Sanitary  Science i2mo, 

Cost  of  Shelter i2mo, 

Richards  and  Woodman's  Air,  Water,  and  Food  from  a.  Sanitary  Stand- 
point  , 8vo, 

*  Richards  and  Williams's  The  Dietary  Computer 8vo, 

Rideal's  Sewage  and  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewage 8vo, 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo, 

Von  Behring's  Suppression  of  Tuberculosis.     (Bolduan.) i2mo, 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water .8vo, 

Winton's  Microscopy  of  Vegetable  Foods 8vo, 

Woodhull's  Notes  on  Military  Hygiene i6mo, 

*  Personal  Hygiene i2mo. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

De  Fursac's  Manual  of  Psychiatry.     (Rosanoff  and  Collins.).  .  .  .Large  i2mo, 

Ehrlich's  Collected  Studies  on  Immunity  ( Bolduan) 8vo, 

Emmons's  Geological  Guide-book  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Excursion  of  the 

International  Congress  of  Geologists Large  £vo, 

Ferrel's  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Winds 8vo. 

Haines's  American  Railway  Management i2mo, 

Mott's  Fallacy  of  the  Present  Theory  of  Sound ' i6mo, 

Hicketts's  History  of  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  1824-1894.. Small  8vo, 

Rostoski's  Serum  Diagnosis.     (Bolduan.) i2mo , 

Rotherham's  Emphasized  New  Testament c Large  8vo, 

18 


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6 

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50 

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00 

Steel's  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Dog 8vo,  3  50 

The  World's  Columbian  Lxposition  of  1803 4to,  i  00 

Von  Behring's  Suppression  of  Tuberculosis.     (Bolduan.) i2mo,  i  00 

Winslow's  Elements  of  Applied  Microscopy i2mo,  i  50 

Worcester  and  Atkinson.     Small  Hospitals,  Establishment  and  Maintenance; 

Suggestions  for  Hospital  Architecture :  Plans  for  Small  Hospital .  i2mo,  i  25 


HEBREW  AND   CHALDEE  TEXT-BOOKS. 


Green's  Elementary  Hebrew  Grammar i2mo,  1   25 

Hebrew  Chrestomathy 8vo,  2  00 

Gesenius's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon  to  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures. 

(Tregelles.) Small  4to,  half  morocco,  5  00 

Letteris's  Hebrew  Bible 8vo,  2  25 

19 


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